i! 


University  of  California  •  Berkeley 


From  the  library 

of 
JAMES  D.  HART 


111 


6*397 


OR, 


THE  PRINTER'S  INSTRUCTOR: 


A    BRIEF    SKETCH    OF    THE 


ORIGIN,  RISE,  AND   PROGEESS 


PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  CONDUCTING  EVERY  DEPARTMENT 
IN  AN  OFFICE, 

HINTS   TO   AUTHORS,    PUBLISHERS,   &c. 


BY  THOMAS   F.  ADAMS, 

TYPOGRAPHER. 


PHILADELPHIA : 

PUBLISHED  BY  L.  JOHNSON  &  CO. 
1861. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1845,  by 

JAMES  KAY,  JUN.,  &  BROTHER, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  in  and  for  the 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


PREFACE. 


In  presenting  another  edition  of  our  Work  for  public  favor, 
we  cannot  forego  the  opportunity  of  acknowledging  our  obli- 
gations to  the  Profession,  for  the  very  liberal  and  flattering  testi- 
monials of  their  approbation  heretofore  extended  us,  as  well  as 
to  those  who  have  taken  so  warm  an  interest  in  the  appearance 
of  the  present  edition. 

Very  many  of  the  works  heretofore  published  on  this  subject, 
in  a  practical  point  of  view,  have  been  little  else  than  reprints 
of  old  Grammars,  chiefly  of  Smith's,  published  in  London, 
1755;  although  we  have  in  many  instances  adopted  the  lan- 
guage of  our  predecessors,  still  we  have  in  general  not  only 
compressed  the  information  contained  in  it,  but  have  in  all  cases 
made  it  subservient  to  our  own  views  and  experience. 

Among  the  numerous  additions  which  have  been  made,  and 
which  now  appear  in  print  for  the  first  time,  we  would  direct 
attention  particularly  to  the  articles  on  Gold,  Bronze,  Card  and 
Xylographic  printing,  and  last,  though  not  least  in  importance, 
the  printing  of  Wood  Engravings,  a  branch  which  when  pro- 
perly executed  is  eminently  calculated  to  elevate  the  art  in 
public  estimation,  and  to  secure  for  the  best  productions  exten- 
sive patronage  as  works  of  Art.  Until  recently  but  little  atten- 
tion has  been  bestowed  upon  it  in  this  country,  and  as  the 
attention  of  the  profession  has  now  been  turned  to  it,  we  have 
thought  proper  to  make  our  observations  on  the  subject  full  and 
comprehensible. 

The  Literati,  and  in  fact  every  one  in  any  way  connected 
with  the  publishing  and  printing  business,  will  find  suitable 
directions  for  their  guidance  in  preparing  copy,  making  calcu- 
lations, corrections,  &,c.  &,c. 


IV  PREFACE. 

The  practical  directions  for  conducting  every  department  in 
an  ofhce,  will,  we  trust,  be  found  more  complete  than  any  here- 
tofore published,  giving  all  the  necessary  information  for  Com- 
posing, Imposing,  Fine  Presswork,  Ornamental  Printing,  and  a 
minute  account  of  the  best  modes  of  making  and  managing 
composition  rollers. 

In  our  endeavours  to  furnish  the  Profession  with  an  Assist- 
ant, we  have  borne  in  mind  the  wants  of  beginners,  and  may, 
perhaps,  in  some  instances  be  charged  with  unnecessary  pro- 
lixity ;  but  we  think  it  is  better  to  lay  before  the  general  reader 
information  which  he  already  possesses,  than  to  withhold  such 
minutiae  from  the  rising  generation,  who,  by  a  proper  apprecia- 
tion of  it,  and  attention  to  business,  may  become  ornaments  to 
the  profession  they  have  embraced. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

HISTORY    OF    THE    ART. 

America,  Printing  introduced  into  ....  20 

Art  of  Printing  practiced  in  China  at  an  early  period   .         .     8 

Bibles  printed  in  1450 15 

Chinese  Printing  described  ......       8 

Coster  of  Hserlem,  supposed  inventor     ....         10 

England,  Introduction  of  the  Art  into         .         .         .         .25 

Engraving,  Sketch  of 38 

Guttemberg  of  Mentz,  Testimony  in  favor  of  .  .  .16 
Invention  claimed  by  Hoerlem,  Mentz,  Strazburg  and  Venice  9 
Lithography,  Historical  sketch  of  .  .  .  .  33 

Medallion  of  the  acknowledged  Inventors  .  .  .  .23 
Newspaper,  first  in  North  America  ....  28 
Origin,  Rise,  and  Progress  of  the  Art  ....  7 
Stereotyping,  Sketch  of  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  32 

Slrazburg,  Claims  in  favor  of 20 

Testimony  of  Ulric  Zell  in  favor  of  Mentz      ...         12 


PART  II. 

CHAPTER  I. 

PRACTICE    OF    THE    ART. 

Black  Letter 47 

Different  sizes  of  Printing  letters 47 

Irregular  bodied  Letter 48 

Italic  Letter 45 

Practical  Instructor 43 

Properties  and  Shapes  of  Types 44 

Regular  bodied  Letter     .         .         ...         .         .         ,  48 

Roman  Letter 44 


CHAPTER  II. 
LETTER  FOUNDERS'  SORTS. 

Accented  Letters 55 

Apostrophe         .....  ...     65 

Arithmetical  Figures *        •        70 


VI  CONTENTS. 

Ascending  Letters .        .50 

Bill  of  Pica,  Roman  and  Italic        .        .   '     .        .        .  51 

Capitals  and  Small  Capitals 54 

Descending  Letters 50 

Double  Letters 50 

Fount  of  Letter  as  considered  by  Letter  Founders          .  49 

Hyphen  or  Division  ....                          ,         .  62 

Kerned  Letters        ....         f         ...  50 

Long  Letters 50 

Lower  Case  Sorts 58 

Numeral  Letters 67 

Parentheses  and  Brackets 64 

Points 58 

Quadrats 66 

References 55 

Short  Letters 50 

Sorts  to  a  Bill  of  Pica,  Roman  and  Italic    .        .        .        .53 

Spaces 67 


CHAP.  III. 

RULES,    SIZES    OF    LETTER,    &C. 

Braces 73 

Casting  off  Copy 82 

Flowers 7() 

Fractions 74 

Gradation  of  Types        .......  81 

Leads 76 

Metal  Rules  or  Dashes 72 

Names  of  Letter  and  their  bearings  to  each  other        .         .  72 

Quotations  and  Hollow  Quadrats 75 

Rules 71 

Space  Rules 73 

Superiors 74 

Two  line  Letters     ,  76 


CHAP.  IV. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON    COMPOSING,    &C. 

Cases  generally  used  in  the  United  States  .  .  90,  91 
The  late  Earl  Stanhope's  plan,  and  Remaiks  94,  96 
T.  F.  Adams'  plan,  and  Remarks  .  .  .  98,  100 

Composing 87 

Distributing A02 

Laying  of  Cases 101 

Observations  on  Composing     ....  .     105 


CONTENTS. 

vli 

CHAPTER  V. 

Imposing* 

IMPOSING,    &C. 

118    175 

Impositions 

119.  168 

Locking  up  Forms 

174 

Making  Margin 

171 

CHAPTER  VI. 

CORRECTORS    AND    CORRECTING. 

Celestial  and  Astronomical  Signs         .         .        .         .  198 

Correctors  and  ^Correcting 176 

Correcting  in  the  Metal 182 

Greek  and  Hebrew  Alphabets  and  Cases         .       ..       200.209 
Letters  that  have  a  likeness  to  others  ....  209 

Music 210 

Mathematical,  Algebraical,  and  Geometrical  Characters,       195 

Physical  Signs  and  Abbreviations 199 

Reader,  Department  of  a 188 

Typographical  Marks  and  Explanations          .        .       178.  180 


CHAPTER  VII. 
OVERSEER'S  DEPARTMENT. 

Compositors'  and  Pressmen's  Check  Book    .        .        .  214 

Correcting 224 

Duty  of  an  Overseer 211 

Expediting  Works  of  an  urgent  nature     .         .         .         .218 

Imposing,  and  Distributing  Letter         ....  223 

Job  Book,  plan  of 215 

Making  up, — Letter — Furniture 222 

Press  Book,  plan  of 213 

Rules  and  Regulations  to  be  observed  in  a  Printing  Office  216 

Rules  to  be  observed  in  Companionship        .         .         .  220 

Taking  Copy     .........  220 

Transposition  of  Pages           ......  226 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    PRESS. 

Covering  Tympans 230 

Blankets 234 

Fine  Printing 246 


Viii  CONTENTS. 

Ley  Trough 245 

Making  ready  a  Form 235 

Mixing  and  grinding  Colors  with  Varnish     .         .         .  257 

Ornamental  Printing— Card,  Gold,  Bronze,  &c.  &c.         .  252 

Printing  Engravings  on  Wood      .         .         .         .         .  251 

Printing-  Red  or  other  colors  with  Black  .  255 

Pulling 240 

Rules  and  Remedies  for  Pressmen     .         .         .        .         .  243 

Setting  up  a  Press  and  Roller  Stand      .        .         .        228,  229 

Wetting  Paper 231 

CHAPTER  IX. 

INKING   APPARATUS. 

Balls — Knocking  up,  &c. 258 

Composition  Rollers — Directions  for  making         .         .  260 

Preparing  the  Mould     .         .         .  2G4 

General  Directions  for  Working  265 

Skin  Rollers— to  Make 259 

Self  Inking  Apparatus           .        .        .        ,        .  •      .  266 


CHAPTER  X. 

IMPROVED    PRESSES. 

Adams's  Power  Press        .         •         •         .         .         .         .171 

Columbian  Press    .....         t         •• 

Hoe's  Single-Cylinder       .... 

Machine  Job  Presses     ....  A  . 

Machine  Printing      .         .         .         .         W  •         .     ~G.) 

Smith  Press '2(i8 

Washington  Press 203 

CHAPTER  XI. 

WAREHOUSE    DEPARTMENT. 

Counting  out  and  Putting  by  sheets          ....  279 

Filling  in  and  Pressing  sheets 278 

Giving  out  Paper  to  wet <  275 

Hanging  up  Paper  to  dry 

Sizes  of  Paper  as  made  by  Machinery-     ....  279 

Taking  down  sheets  when  dry 277 

Warehouse  Book •  274 

Technical  Terms 280,  282 

Table  of  Proportions  of  Type 286 

I 


THE 

ORIGIN,  RISE,  AND  PROGRESS, 

OF  THE 

TYPOGRAPHIC    ART 


"  Th'  Inventor  of  this  noble  Art  to  find, 

Has  long  engag'd  the  Antiquary's  mind  ; 

To  question  dates,  on  books  and  records  pore, 

To  draw  the  veil  Obscurity's  cast  o'er  ; 

Vain  are  his  efforts,  'tis  beyond  his  might, 

To  fix  in  truth,  on  man,  or  place  the  right: 

Doubts  still  exist  to  whom  the  palm  is  due, 

Partisans  for  each  their  claims  pursue  : 

But  metal  types  the  honor  all  confer, 

On  both  the  Outtembergs,  Faust  and  Schceffer.'' 


THIS  noble  invention,  which  is  one  of  the  greatest  blessings 
heaven  has  bestowed,  cannot  fail  exciting  a  considerable  degree 
of  interest  in  the  rising  generation,  to  be  informed  when,  and  by 
whom,,  it  was  first  discovered,  and  brought  into  general  use. 
Though  printing  be  considered  a  modern  invention,  it  is  allowed 
to  have  been  practised  in  the  East  from  a  very  early  period,  in  a 
similar  manner  to  our  first  essays.  It  has  been  contended,  that 
the  remoteness  and  seclusion  of  the  Chinese  prevented  our  gain- 
ing any  information  from  them :  but  Mr.  W.  Y.  Ottley,  and  Mr. 
S.  W.  Singer,  concur  in  opinion,  that  the  art  of  engraving  in 
wood  was  known  in  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century :  that  it 
was  brought  from  Asia  by  the  Venitian  merchants,  whose  in- 
tercourse with  that  territory  was  frequent,  by  way  of  Constanti- 
nople, from  a  very  early  period.  As  to  the  silence  of  Marco 
Polo  upon  this  subject,  in  his  account  of  the  marvels  he  had 
witnessed  in  China,  having  resided  at  the  court  of  the  great  Chan 
of  Tartary  for  seventeen  years,  1295:  Mr.  O.  conceives  that 
the  author  thought  it  of  little  interest,  as  the  art  had  been  long 
practised  in  Venice.  Many  writers  have  ascribed  this  invention 
to  an  earlier  period  than  the  Christian  era;  Father  Couplet 
states  the  year  930:  Father  du  Halde  fixes  it  fifty  years  prior 

7 


8  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

to  the  former  period,  under  the  reign  of  Ming  Tsong  I.  the  se- 
cond Emperor  of  the  Tartarian  dynasty:  and  Father  le  Compte 
contends,  that  it  has  been  practised  in  China  from  all  ages:  he 
adds  that  the  only  difference  between  the  European  and  Chi- 
nese methods,  consist  in  the  former  being  able,  from  the  small 
number  of  letters  in  their  alphabet,  to  print  voluminous  works, 
the  letters  of  the  first  sheet,  from  a  re-arrangement,  serving  for 
all  the  succeeding  ones:  whereas,  from  the  prodigious  number 
of  characters  in  the  Chinese  alphabet,  (some  accounts  state  them 
at  eighty  thousand)  they  contend  that  it  is  much  easier  and  less 
expensive  to  have  their  pages  cut  on  wood ;  thus  having  as  many 
blocks  as  there  are  leaves  in  the  book.  Father  du  Halde  gives 
the  following  particulars  relative  to  Chinese  printing : 

"  The  work  intended  to  be  printed  is  transcribed  by  a  careful 
writer  upon  a  thin  transparent  paper:  the  engraver  glues  each 
of  these  written  sheets,  with  its  face  downwards  upon  a  smooth 
tablet  of  pear  or  apple-tree,  or  some  other  hard  wood ;  and  then, 
with  gravers  and  other  instruments  he  cuts  the  wood  away  in 
all  those  parts  upon  which  he  finds  nothing  traced  ;  thus  leaving 
the  transcribed  characters  ready  for  printing :  in  this  manner  he 
prepares  as  many  blocks  as  there  are  written  pages.  He  then 
prints  the  number  of  copies  immediately  wanted ;  for  he  can  al- 
ways print  more,  if  they  are  required,  without  the  labor  of  re- 
composition  necessary  in  typography:  nor  is  any  time  lost  in 
correcting  the  proof  sheets,  for,  as  he  is  guided  in  his  engraving 
by  the  strokes  of  the  written  copy,  or  perhaps  the  original  of  the 
author  himself,  it  is  impossible  for  him  to  make  any  mistakes, 
if  the  copy  is  written  with  exactness.  When  once,  however, 
the  blocks  are  engraved,  the  paper  is  cut,  and  the  ink  is  ready, 
one  man  with  his  brush  can,  without  fatigue,  print  ten  thousand 
sheets  in  a  day.  The  block  to  be  printed  must  be  placed  level, 
and  firmly  fixed.  The  man  must  have  two  brushes,  one  of  them 
of  a  stiffer  kind,  which  he  can  hold  in  his  hand,  and  use  at  either 
end.  He  dips  it  into  the  ink,  and  rubs  the  block  with  it ;  taking 
care  not  to  wet  it  too  much,  or  to  leave  it  too  dry :  if  it  were  wetted 
too  much,  the  characters  would  be  slurred ;  if  too  little,  they 
would  not  print.  When  the  block  is  once  got  into  a  proper 
state,  he  can  print  three  or  four  sheets  following  without  clipping 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  9 

his  brush  into  the  ink.  The  second  brush  is  used  to  rub  over 
the  paper,  with  a  small  degree  of  pressure,,  that  it  may  take  the 
impression:  this  it  does  easily,  for,  not  being  sized  with  alum,  it 
receives  the  ink  the  instant  it  comes  in  contact  with  it.  It  is 
only  necessary  that  the  brush  should  be  passed  over  every  part 
of  the  sheet  with  a  greater  or  smaller  degree  of  pressure,  and  re- 
peated in  proportion  as  the  printer  finds  there  is  more  or  less 
ink  upon  the  block.  This  brush  is  soft,  and  of  an  oblong  form." 

The  discovery  of  Printing,  having  been  made  so  lately  as  the 
fifteenth  century,  it  is  matter  of  surprise  that  no  certain  record 
has  been  handed  down  fixing  the  precise  time  when,  the  person 
by  whom,  and  the  place  whence  this  Art  received  its  birth.  The 
abilities  of  the  literary  Antiquaries  of  different  nations  have  been 
called  forth,  in  order  that  the  palm  may  be  ceded  to  those,  who 
not  only  merited  so  well  of  their  own  country,  but  also  of  every 
other  portion  of  the  civilized  globe.  These  researches  have  not 
satisfactorily  determined  the  point;  the  affair  still  remains  in- 
volved in  a  certain  degree  of  mystery;  although  it  must  be 
admitted,  that  great  probability  appears  in  the  theories  of  some 
of  those  who  have  investigated  this  difficult  subject. 

Two  reasons  may  be  assigned  for  this  obscurity;  viz.  the 
imperfect  state  of  printing  while  it  remained  in  the  possession  of 
its  inventor.  2d.  Pecuniary  motives  induced  the  first  printers 
(from  the  large  sums  which  were  usually  paid  for  manuscripts) 
to  sell  their  works  as  such;  so  that  printing  was,  for  a  period,  as 
much  the  counterfeit  as  the  substitute  for  writing,  it  being  a 
fac-simile  of  the  most  approved  Scribes.  The  few  persons  con- 
cerned kept  the  art  a  secret  for  some  time,  till  their  funds  not 
being  sufficient  to  answer  the  necessary  expenses,  these  inge- 
nious men  were  thus  compelled  to  associate  with  persons  of 
property,  from  the  union  of  whose  names  a  degree  of  doubt  has 
arisen  to  whom  the  merit  really  belongs. 

A  competition  for  this  distinguished  honor  now  took  place 
between  Haerlem,  Mentz,  Strazburg,  and  Venice;  partizans 
arose  in  favor  of  Laurensz  Jansz  Coster,  of  Haerlem ;  John 
Guttemberg  and  others  of  Mentz;  Guttemberg  and  Mentilius, 
of  Strazburg;  and  Nicolas  Janson,  of  Venice;  others  ascribing 
the  discovery  to  John  Guttemberg,  or  Geinsfleich,  junior. 


10  TYPOGRAPHIC. 

The  claims  of  Laurentius  Coster,  of  Haerlem,  depend  princi- 
pally on  the  authority  of  the  celebrated  historian  of  Holland, 
Hadrianus  Junius,  or  Adrian  Young,  who  took  up  his  residence 
at  Haerlem  in  1560.  He  died  1575,  having  just  finished  his 
work  intituled  "Batavia,"  which  appeared  in  1578,  arid  from 
which  it  is  considered  that  all  Coster's  partizans  have  taken 
'heir  ground  of  argument.  The  following  particulars,  supposed 
to  have  been  written  in  1568,  he  states  were  related  by  his  tutor, 
Nicholas  Galius,  an  old  gentlemen  of  very  tenacious  memory, 
who  stated,  that  when  a  boy,  he  had  often  heard  one  Cornelius, 
a  bookbinder,  (then  upwards  of  eighty  years  of  age,  who  had, 
when  a  youth,  assisted  at  the  printing  office  of  Coster,)  describe 
with  great  earnestness  the  numerous  trials  and  experiments 
made  by  his  master  in  the  infancy  of  the  invention :  when  he 
came  to  that  part  of  his  narrative  touching  the  robbery,  he 
would  burst  into  tears,  and  curse,  with  the  greatest  vehemence, 
those  nights  in  which  he  had  slept  with  so  vile  a  miscreant; 
and  that,  were  he  still  alive,  he  could  with  great  pleasure 
execute  the  thief  with  his  own  hands.  Junius  states  that  he 
received  a  similar  account  from  Q,uirinus  Talesius,  the  Burgo- 
master, who  declared  that  it  was  recited  to  him  by  the  said 
Cornelius : — 

"About  120  years  ago,  Laurence  Zanssen  Coster,  inhabited 
a  decent  and  fashionable  house  in  the  city  of  Haerlem,  situated 
on  the  market-place,  opposite  the  royal  palace.  The  name  of 
Coster  was  assumed,  and  inherited  from  his  ancestors,  who  had 
long  enjoyed  the  honorable  and  lucrative  office  of  Coster  or 
Sexton  to  the  church.  This  man  deserves  to  be  restored  to  the 
honor  of  being  the  first  inventor  of  printing,  of  which  he  has 
been  unjustly  deprived  by  others,  who  have  enjoyed  the  praises 
due  to  him  alone.  As  he  was  walking  in  the  wood  contiguous 
to  the  city,  which  was  the  general  custom  of  the  richer  citizens 
and  men  of  leisure,  in  the  afternoon  and  on  holidays,  he  began 
to  cut  letters  on  the  bark  of  the  beech  ;  with  these  letters  he 
enstamped  marks  upon  paper  in  a  contrary  direction,  in  the 
manner  of  a  seal;  until  at  length  he  formed  a  few  lines  for  his 
own  amusement,  and  for  the  use  of  the  children  of  his  brother- 
in-law.  This  succeeding  so  well,  he  attempted  greater  things ; 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  11 

and  being  a  man  of  genius  and  reflection,  he  invented,  with  the 
aid  of  his  brother  or  son-in-law,,  Thomas  Pietrison,  a  thicker 
and  more  adhesive  ink,  as  the  common  ink  was  too  thin  and 
made  blotted  marks.  With  this  ink  he  was  able  to  print  blocks 
and  figures,  to  which  he  added  letters.  I  have  seen  specimens 
of  his  printing  in  this  manner :  in  the  beginning  he  printed  on 
one  side  only.  This  was  a  Dutch  book,  entitled  Spiegal  enser 
Behoudenisse.  That  it  was  one  of  the  first  books  printed  after 
the  invention  of  the  art,  appears  from  the  leaves,  which  are 
pasted  together,  that  the  naked  sides  might  not  be  offensive  to 
the  eyes  j  and  none  at  first  were  printed  in  a  more  perfect 
manner.  As  this  new  species  of  traffic  attracted  numerous 
customers,  thus  did  the  profits  arising  from  it  increase  his  love 
for  the  art,  and  his  diligence  in  the  exercise  of  it. 

"  He  engaged  workmen,  which  was  the  source  of  the  mis- 
chief.   Among  these  workmen  was  one  Jan ,  whether  his 

surname  be  that  of  Faust,  or  any  other,  is  of  no  great  importance 
to  me ;  as  I  will  not  disturb  the  dead,  whose  consciences  must 
have  smote  them  sufficiently  while  living.  This  Jan,  who 
assisted  at  the  printing-press  under  oath,  after  he  had  learned 
the  art  of  casting  the  types,  setting  them,  and  other  articles 
belonging  to  the  art,  and  thought  himself  sufficiently  instructed, 
having  watched  the  opportunity,  as  he  could  not  find  a  better, 
he  packed  up  the  types  and  the  other  articles  on  Christmas  eve, 
while  the  family  was  engaged  in  celebrating  the  festival,  and 
stole  away  with  them.  He  first  fled  to  Amsterdam,  thence  to 
Cologne,  until  he  could  establish  himself  at  Mentz,  as  a  secure 
place,  where  he  might  open  shop,  and  reap  the  fruits  of  his 
knavery.  It  is  a  known  fact,  that  within  the  twelve  months, 
that  is,  in  the  year  1440,  he  published  the  Jllexandri  Galli 
Doctrinale,  a  grammar  at  that  time  in  high  repute,  with  Petri 
Hispani  Tractatibus  Logicis,  with  the  same  letters  which 
Laurens  had  used.  These  were  undoubtedly  the  first  products 
of  his  press.  These  are  the  principal  circumstances  that  I 
have  collected  from  creditable  persons  far  advanced  in  years, 
which  they  have  transmitted  like  a  flaming  torch  from  hand 
to  hand ;  I  have  also  met  with  others  who  have  confirmed  the 

same,"  &c.  &c. 

2 


12  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

Ulric  Zell,  father  of  the  Cologne  press,  was  a  native  of 
Germany,  and  is  said  to  have  gained  his  knowledge  of  the  art  to 
Mentz.  In  the  Cologne  Chronicle  of  1499,  he  gives  the  follow- 
ing testimony: 

"  ITEM  :  This  most  revered  art  was  first  discovered  at  Mentz, 
in  Germany  ;  and  it  is  a  great  honor  to  the  German  nation,  that 
such  ingenious  men  were  found  in  it.  This  happened  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  MCCCCXL;  and  from  that  time,  till  the  year 
MCCCCJ,,  the  art,  and  what  belongs  to  it,  was  rendered  more 
perfect.  In  the  year  of  our  Lord  MCCCCL,  which  was  a  golden 
year,  then  men  began  to  print,  and  the  first  book  printed  was  a 
Bible  in  Latin,  and  it  was  printed  in  a  larger  character  than  that 
with  which  men  now  print  mass-books.  ITEM:  although  this 
art  was  discovered  at  Mentz  at  first,  in  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  now  commonly  used,  yet  the  first  example  of  it  was  found  in 
Holland,  in  the  Donatuses  which  were  before  printed  there. 
And  thence  is  derived  the  beginning  of  this  art,  and  it  is  more 
masterly  and  subtle  than  the  ancient  manner  was,  and  by  far 
more  ingenious:  but  the  first  inventor  of  printing  was  a  citizen 
of  Mentz,  and  was  born  at  Strasbourg,  and  was  called  John 
Gudenburch.  ITEM  :  from  Mentz,  the  before-mentioned  art  first 
came  to  Cologne,  thence  to  Strasbourg,  and  thence  to  Venice. 
The  beginning  and  progress  of  the  before-mentioned  art  was 
told  me,  by  word  of  mouth,  by  the  worthy  man,  Master  Ulrich 
Tzell  of  Hanault,  printer  at  Cologne,  in  the  present  year 
MCCCCXCIX — by  \vhom  the  fore-mentioned  art  is  come  to 
Cologne." 

Schospflin  asserts,  that  Peter  de  Olpe,  not  U.  Zell,  was  the 
first  Cologne  printer:  Mr.  Dibdin  satisfactorily  answers  him, 
and  proves  that  Zell  printed  there  in  1466,  four  years  prior  to 
Olpe.  ' '  Upon  the  whole,"  observes  Mr.  D.  (e  the  evidence  of 
Ulric  Zell  appears  to  be  as  honest  as  it  is  curious." 

Theo.  Volchart  Coornhert,  in  his  translation  of  Cicero's  Offices, 
which  is  dedicated  to  the  Burgomasters,  Judges,  and  Senators 
of  Haerlem,  1561,  observes,  like  Junius,  that  he  writes  upon  the 
authority  of 

"  Aged  persons  pf  the  highest  respectability  and  credit,  who 
had  repeatedly  i$fprm.ed  him,  not  only  of  the  family  of  the 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  12 

inventor,  and  of  his  name  and  surname,  but  also  concerning  the 
rude  manner  of  printing  which  he  at  first  practised,  and  the 
place  of  his  residence,  which  they  had  often  pointed  out  to  him 
with  their  fingers." 

Ludovico  Guicciardini,  by  birth  an  Italian,  in  his  Descrizione 
di  tutti  i  Paesi  Bassi,  written  1565,  and  printed  at  Antwerp, 
in  the  year  1567,  gives  the  following,  in  support  of  the  claims 
of  Haoiiem: 

"According  to  the  common  tradition  of  the  inhabitants,  and 
the  assertion  of  other  natives  of  Holland,  as  well  as  the  testimony 
of  certain  authors  and  other  records,  it  appears  that  the  art  of 
printing  and  stamping  letters  and  characters  on  paper,  in  the 
manner  now  used,  was  first  invented  in  this  place:  but  the 
author  of  the  invention  happening  to  die  before  the  art  was 
brought  to  perfection,  and  had  required  repute,  his  servant,  they 
say,  went  to  reside  at  Mentz ;  where,  giving  proofs  of  his  know- 
ledge in  that  science,  he  was  joyfully  received;  and  where, 
having  applied  himself  to  the  business  with  unremitting  diligence^ 
it  became  at  length  generally  known,  and  was  brought  to  entire 
perfection ;  in  consequence  of  which,  the  fame  afterwards  spread 
abroad  and  became  general,  that  the  art  and  science  of  printing 
originated  in  that  city.  What  is  really  the  truth,  I  am  not  able, 
nor  will  I  take  upon  me  to  decide;  it  sufficing  me  to  have  said 
these  few  words,  that  I  might  not  be  guilty  of  injustice  towards 
this  town  and  this  country." 

That  Laurentius  Coster  carried  the  art  no  farther  than  separate 
wooden  types,  appears  from  a  Dutch  poem,  intituled  Hertspiegal, 
published  in  the  sixteenth  century,  by  Henry  Spiechal,  who 
exclaims: 

"  Thou  first,  Laurentius,  to  supply  the  defect  of  wooden 
tablets,  adaptedst  wooden  types,  and  afterwards  didst  connect 
them  with  a  thread,  to  imitate  writing.  A  treacherous  servant 
surreptitiously  obtained  the  honor  of  the  discovery :  but  truth 
itself,  though  destitute  of  common  and  wide-spread  fame;  truth, 
I  say,  still  remains." 

There  is  no  mention  in  this  poem,  of  metal  types;  had  he 
been  robbed  of  these,  as  well  as  of  wooden  ones,  such  a  circum- 
stance could  not  have  been  passed  over  in  silence. 


14  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

That  the  rough  specimens  with  which  Laurentius  amused 
himself,  should  be  discovered,  at  the  distance  of  three  centuries, 
appears  almost  improbable ;  yet  John  Enschedius,  a  printer, 
discovered  an  old  parchment  Horarium,  printed  on  botn  sides, 
in  eight  pages,  containing  The  Alphabet,  The  Lord's  Prayer, 
The  Apostles'  Creed,  and  three  short  prayers,  which  he 
imagines  to  be  the  first  productions  of  Laurentius.  Mr.  Meer- 
man  submitted  this  to  artists,  (competent  judges,)  who  gave  as 
their  opinion  that  it  exactly  agreed  with  the  description  of 
Junius:  it  also  corresponds  with  the  first  edition  of  the  Dutch 
Speculum  Salvationw,  and  the  fragment  of  the  Holland  Donatus, 
which  are  said  to  have  been  the  productions  of  Laurentius,  and 
are  specimens  of  his  piety  and  ingenuity,  in  this  essay  of  his 
newly  invented  art.  Mr.  Meerman  has  given  an  exact  engraving 
of  this  singular  curiosity. 

Having  touched  upon  the  principal  arguments  in  favor  of 
Haerlem,  we  shall  proceed  to  give  those  which  refer  to  Mentz  : 
•  It  is  generally  affirmed  that  John  Geinfleisch,  sen.  came  to 
Mentz  in  1441,  and  it  is  conjectured  that  he  brought  with  him 
some  of  the  wooden  types,  the  property  of  Laurentius  Coster 
of  Haerlem,  where  it  is  stated  that  he  had  been  employed,  and 
there  learned  the  art  and  mystery  of  printing.  In  the  following 
year,  1442,  we  are  informed  that  he  gave  strong  proofs  of  his 
industry,  by  the  production  of  two  small  works,  intituled, 
JMexmdri  Galli  Doctrinale,  and  Petri  Hispani  Tractatus : — these 
being  books  much  used  in  schools,  he  had  every  reason  to 
expect  that  they  would  meet  with  a  profitable  sale,  together 
with  a  future  prospect  of  success  in  his  new  enterprise. 

In  1443,  he  engaged  the  house  Zum  Jungen,  when  he  was 
joined  by  Faust:  soon  after,  J.  Meidenbachius  and  others  were 
admitted  partners;  but  their  names  are  not  transmitted  to  our 
times.  In  1444,  they  were  joined  by  Guttemberg,  who  is  said 
to  have  made  ineffectual  attempts,  for  several  years,  to  perfect 
the  art  at  Strazburg.  These  ingenious  men  at  length  discovered 
thar  the  wooden  types  were  not  sufficiently  durable,  and  not 
altogether  answering  their  expectation  in  other  respects,  the  two 
brothers  commenced  cutting  metal  types;  while  these  were 
preparing,  they  printed  several  books  of  frequent  use,  such  as, 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  15 

the  Tabula  Jllplidbetica,  the  Catholicvn,  the  Donati  Grammatica, 
and  the  Confessionalia :  these  were  printed  with  separate  wooden 
types  and  wooden  blocks. 

To  commence  printing  an  edition  of  THE  BIBLE  in  this  early- 
stage  of  the  art,  must  be  acknowledged  by  all  as  a  most  asto- 
nishing and  wonderful  undertaking ;  it  was  printed  with  large 
cut  metal  types,  and  published  in  1450:  if  we  consider  the 
immense  labor  of  this  work,  it  is  no  wonder  that  it  should  be 
seven  or  eight  years  in  completing.  This  year  the  partnership 
was  dissolved;  in  August,  Faust  and  Guttemberg  entered  into 
a  new  agreement,  the  former  supplying  money,  the  latter  skill, 
for  their  mutual  benefit.  Various  difficulties  arising,  occasioned 
a  law-suit  for  the  money  which  Faust  had  advanced ;  the  cause 
was  decided  against  Guttemberg.  A  dissolution  of  partnership 
ensued  in  1455;  in  1457,  a  magnificent  edition  of  the  Psalter 
was  published  by  Faust  and  Schoeffer,  with  a  singular  commen- 
dation, in  which  they  assumed  to  themselves  the  merit  of  a  new 
invention,  (viz.  of  metal  types,)  ad  inventionem  artificiosam 
irnprimendi  ac  characterizandi.  This  book  was  in  some  measure 
the  work  of  Guttemberg,  and  at  that  time  considered  uncom- 
monly elegant;  it  was  four  years  in  the  press,  and  came  out  but 
eighteen  months  after  the  partnership  was  dissolved  between 
him  and  Faust. 

John  Fust,  or  Faust,  a  goldsmith  of  Mentz,  was  one  of  the 
three  artists  considered  as  the  inventors  of  printing;  it  is  not 
certain  that  he  did  more  than  supply  the  money  for  carrying  on 
the  concern.  In  1462,  Faust  carried  a  number  of  Bibles  to  Paris, 
which  he  and  his  partner  Schosffer  had  printed,  and  disposed  of 
them  as  manuscripts;  at  this  time  the  discovery  of  the  art  was 
not  known  in  France.  At  first  he  sold  them  at  the  high  price 
of  500  or  600  crowns,  the  sum  usually  obtained  by  the  scribes ; 
he  afterwards  lowered  his  price  to  sixty,  which  created  universal 
astonishment;  but  when  he  produced  them  according  to  the 
demand,  and  even  reduced  the  price  to  thirty,  all  Paris  became 
agitated.  The  uniformity  of  the  copies  increased  their  wonder, 
the  Parisians  considering  it  a  task  beyond  human  invention; 
informations  were  given  to  the  police  against  him  as  a  magi- 
cian; his  lodgings  were  searched,  a  great  number  of  Bibles 

2* 


16  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

were  found,  and  seized;  the  red  ink  with  which  they  were 
embelhsned  was  said  to  be  his  blood;  it  was  seriously  adjudged 
that  he  was  in  league  with  the  devil;  whereupon  he  was  cast 
into  prison,  and  would  most  probably  have  shared  the  fate  of 
such,  whom  ignorant  and  superstitious  judges  condemned  in 
those  days  for  witchcraft.  He  now  found  it  necessary,  in  ordei 
to  gain  his  liberty,  to  make  known  the  discovery  of  the  art 
This  circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  tradition  of  "  The  Devil  and 
Dr.  Faustus,"  which  is  handed  down  to  the  present  time.  It  is 
uncertain  when  Faust  died,  he  was  at  Paris  in  1466,  and  it  is 
strongly  conjectured  that  he  fell  a  victim  to  the  plague,  which 
then  raged  in  that  capital. 

Naude,  in  his  Mascuraly  contends  that  Faust  was  the  first 
printer  in  Europe,  and  that  he  took  in  Guttemberg  as  a  partner. 
He  grounds  his  argument  on  the  impressions  bearing  the  name 
of  Faust,  and  not  the  other  partners ;  whereas,  if  Guttemberg 
and  Coster  had  had  an  equal  share  in  the  invention,  they  would 
not  have  permitted  him  and  his  son-in-law  to  enjoy  the  honor, 
without  offering  to  do  the  like,  or  even  asserting  their  own  right. 

J.  Trithemius,  in  his  history  of  the  year  1450,  gives  the 
following  particulars  relative  to  the  invention,  which  he  states 
to  have  received  from  the  mouth  of  Peter  Schceifery  the  inventor 
of  cast  metal  types : 

"About  this  time  that  wonderful  and  almost  incredible  Art 
of  printing  and  characterizing  books,  was  thought  of  and 
invented  at  Mentz,  by  John  Guttemberg,  a  citizen  of  Mentz, 
who  having  expended  almost  all  his  substance  in  the  invention 
of  this  art,  and  struggling  with  great  difficulties,  both  respecting 
his  circumstances  and  the  impediments  which  arose,  was  upon 
the  brink  of  relinquishing  the  attempt;  but  he  completed  the 
undertaking  through  the  advice  and  pecuniary  assistance  of 
John  Faust,  also  a  citizen  of  Mentz.  They  first  printed  a 
vocabulary,  called  the  Catholicon,  with  the  characters  of  letters 
carved  in  wooden  tablets,  in  a  series,  and  composed  in  forms. 
But  as  these  could  not  serve  for  any  other  purpose,  since  the 
characters  were  not  moveable  from  the  tablets,  but  carved,  they 
afterwards  contrived  better  methods,  and  invented  a  manner  ol 
casting  the  forms  of  all  the  letters  in  the  Latin  alphabet,  which 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  17 

they  called  matrices,  from  which  they  again  cast  brass  and  iron 
characters  capable  of  sustaining  any  pressure,  which  they  first 
cut  with  the  hand.57 

The  person  who  discovered  the  method  of  casting  the  types 
and  completed  the  art  as  it  now  remains,  was  Peter  SchoslTer, 
the  first  servant  of  Guttemberg  and  Faust,  who  became  son-in- 
law  to  the  latter;  these  three  kept  the  art  a  secret  for  some  time, 
till  at  length  it  was  divulged  by  their  servants,  whose  assistance 
was  required  in  the  concern. 

A  great  majority  of  German,  French,  and  Italian  authors,  are 
decidedly  of  opinion  that  the  discovery  was  made  in  Germany. 
That  printing  was  exercised  at  Mentz  at  an  early  period,  is  an 
incontrovertible  fact;  and  was  practised  there  by  several  persons, 
to  one  or  other  of  whom  this  invention  has  been  attributed.  It 
is  strange,  while  Mentz  is  priding  herself  upon  this  high  honor, 
the  citizens  are  not  agreed  to  whom  the  merit  is  due. 

Naude  observes,  that  the  person  is  not  yet  born  who  can  say 
that  he  has  seen  books  printed  by  either  Coster,  Guttemberg,  or 
Mentil,  before,  or  as  early  as  those  of  Faust,  all  that  can  be 
urged  on  their  behalf  being  founded  on  reports,  conjectures, 
probabilities,  forged  authorities,  and  the  jealousies  of  cities 
against  one  another. 

Salmuth  cites  a  public  act,  which  states  Faust  to  be  the 
inventor;  and,  after  sustaining  it  for  some  time,  he  at  length 
took  in  Guttemberg  as  a  partner,  to  contribute  towards  the 
expense,  which  was  great,  in  consequence  of  the  books  being 
printed  on  vellum,  after  the  Chinese  method. 

The  most  ample  testimony  in  favor  of  Schceffer  is  given  by 
Jo.  Frid.  Faustus  of  Aschaffenburg,  from  papers  preserved  in 
his  family: 

"  Peter  Schoeffer  of  Gernsheim,  perceiving  his  master  Faust's 
design,  and  being  himself  ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art, 
found  out  (by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the  method  of 
cutting  (incidendi)  the  characters  in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters 
might  easily  be  singly  cast ,  instead  of  being  cut.  He  privately 
cut  matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet;  and  when  he  showed  his 
master  the  letters  cast  from  those  matrices,  Faust  was  so  pleased 
with  the  contrivance,  mat  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him  his 


18  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

only  daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a  promise  which  he  soon 
after  performed.  But  there  were  as  many  difficulties  at  first 
with  these  letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with  wooden  ones; 
the  metal  being  too  soft  to  support  the  force  of  the  impression ; 
but  this  defect  was  soon  remedied,  by  mixing  the  metal  with  a 
substance  which  sufficiently  hardened  it." 

The  first  book  printed  with  the  improved  types  was  DuraruH 
Rationale,  in  1459;  however,  they  seem  to  have  had  only  one 
size  of  cast  letters,  all  the  larger  characters  which  occur  being 
cut  types,  as  it  plainly  appears  by  an  inspection  of  the  book. 
Faust  and  SchoerTer  continued  to  print  a  considerable  number  of 
works  till  1466:  particularly  two  famous  editions  of  Tully's 
Offices.  They  took  more  impressions  on  vellum  than  on  paper 
in  their  earliest  works,  which  was  the  case  with  their  Bibles  and 
TnUy's  Offices.  This  was  soon  inverted ;  for  paper  being 
introduced,  they  took  but  few  impressions  on  vellum,  which 
were  more  for  curiosities  than  for  general  use.  How  Jong 
Faust  lived  is  uncertain;  but,  in  1471,  we  find  that  Schcefler 
was  in  partnership  with  Conrad  Henlif  and  a  kinsman  of  his 
master  Faust.  He  printed  several  books  after  the  death  of  his 
father-in-law;  the  last  of  which  that  can  be  discovered  is  a  third 
edition  of  the  Psalter,  in  1490,  in  which  the  old  cut  metal  types 
were  used. 

We  are  informed  that  the  Mentz  printers,  in  order  that  the  art 
might  not  be  divulged,  administered  an  oath  of  secrecy  to  all 
whom  they  employed;  this  appears  to  have  been  strictly  adhered 
to  until  the  year  1462,  at  which  period  the  city  was  sacked  and 
plundered  by  Archbishop  Adolphus,  its  former  rights  and 
franchises  were  also  abolished:  amid  the  consternation  occa- 
sioned by  this  extraordinary  event,  the  workmen  of  the  Mentz 
press,  considering  their  oath  of  fidelity  no  longer  binding,  now 
became  free  agents,  and  spread  themselves  in  different  directions  : 
by  this  circumstance,  the  hitherto  great  mystery  was  rapidly 
carried  through  a  considerable  portion  of  Europe:  the  places 
which  received  it  early,  after  some  time,  commenced  a  conten- 
tion for  the  merit  of  the  discovery  of  this  important  Art,  which 
has  given  rise  to  the  numerous  disputes  we  are  now  endeavoring 
to  reconcile. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  19 

Having  given  the  most  material  points  respecting  the  claims 
of  Haerlem  and  Mentz,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  state  those  in 
favor  of  Slrazburg: 

It  is  asserted  by  J.  Wimphelingius,  the  oldest  writer  in  favor 
of  the  latter  city,  that  Guttemberg  was  the  inventor  of  (e  a  new 
art  of  writing,"  ars  impressoria,  which  he  happily  completed  at 
Mentz;  but  he  does  not  mention  one  work  of  his  printing;  in 
another  book  he  observes,  *f  the  art  of  printing  was  found  out  by 
Guttemberg,  incomplete" 

Richard  Bartoline  published  a  work  in  favor  of  Mentilius,  and 
states  the  period  to  be  1441.  Gebwiler,  (born  1473,)  contends 
that  the  art  was  first  discovered  at  Strazburg,  by  Mentilius,  and 
that  Faust,  of  Mentz,  afterwards  imitated  him. 

Trithemius  informs  us,  that  Guttemberg  spent  all  his 
substance  in  quest  of  this  art,  and  met  with  insuperable 
difficulties;  that,  in  despair,  he  had  nearly  given  up  all  hopes 
of  success,  till  he  was  assisted  by  the  liberality  of  Faust,  and 
by  his  brother's  skill,  in  the  city  of  Mentz.  It  is  evident  that 
his  endeavors  at  Strazburg  were  unsuccessful ;  as  appears  by 
the  documents  of  a  judicial  decree  of  that  Senate,  in  1439;  after 
the  death  of  Andrew  Drizehen,  or  Drizenius,  whom  Guttemberg, 
(a  man  of  great  talent  and  ingenuity)  had  engaged  to  instruct  in 
the  art  of  polishing  stones ;  he  afterwards  employed  one  John 
Riff  in  the  art  of  making  mirrors,  or  looking  glasses,  as  prac- 
tised at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  also  in  other  arts,  in  which  the 
said  Drizehen,  and  also  Anthony  Heilman,  wished  to  be 
initiated:  certain  conditions  were  then  agreed  upon.  These 
two  individuals  paid  an  unexpected  visit  to  Guttemberg,  who 
lived  in  the  suburbs,  when  they  found  him  busily  employed  in 
another  mystery,  which  had  been  concealed  from  them.  After 
a  short  dispute,  Guttemberg  proposed  to  instruct  them  on  cer- 
tain conditions;  one  of  which  was,  that  a  portion  of  the  sum 
advanced  by  the  parties  be  refunded  to  their  heirs  if  they  should 
die  within  the  space  of  five  years;  Drizehen  did  not  survive  the 
term,  when  his  heirs  insisted  on  the  conditions  of  the  engage- 
ment; to  which  Guttemberg,  who  appears  to  have  been  a 
litigious  man,  strenuously  refused ;  a  legal  process  was  the 
consequence.  From  the  evidence  given  by  the  different  work- 


20  TYPOGRAFHIA. 

men,  carpenters,  servants,  &c.  it  is  evident  that  this  mystery  was 
the  invention  of  printing.  Immediately  after  the  demise  of  Drize- 
hen,  Guttemberg  gave  orders  to  his  servants  to  convey  from  his 
house  certain  implements  in  the  most  secret  manner;  which 
afterwards  appeared  to  be  a  printing-press,,  and  a  quantity  of 
letter?  cut  in  wood.  This  discovery  was  made  December  26, 
1438. 

In  1439,  John  Dunnius  declared  before  the  magistrates,  that 
he  had  received  one  hundred  florins  for  work  done  at  a  press 
three  years  before;  this  brings  the  epoch  of  the  first  attempt 
to  1436. 

In  1438,  the  unfortunate  Drizehen  lamented  to  his  Confessor, 
the  great  expense  which  he  had  incurred,  without  having  been 
reimbursed  a  single  obolus.  Nor  did  Guttemberg  himself,  who 
persisted  in  his  unsuccessful  attempts,  reap  any  advantage  from 
them ;  for  on  quitting  Strazburg,  he  was  overwhelmed  in  debt, 
and  under  the  necessity  of  parting  with  the  greater  portion  of 
his  property. 

John  Mentilius,  a  physician  at  Paris,  has  strenuously  de- 
fended the  cause  of  his  namesake  of  Strazburg:  but  his  endeavors 
have  not  advanced  the  cause  of  Mentilius  one  tittle  beyond  what 
had  been  done  by  his  predecessors. 

The  principal  argument  which  the  defenders  of  Mentilius 
have  set  forth,  is  the  title  of  nobility  conferred  upon  him  by  the 
Emperor  Frederick  III.  This  circumstance  was  handed  down 
by  the  grand-daughter  of  Mentilius,  who  married  J.  Schottien; 
and  he  gave  it  publicity  in  the  Ptolemaic  Geography,  printed  at 
Strazburg,  1520.  It  has  been  asserted,  that  he  was  induced  to 
make  this  boast,  from  the  conduct  of  John  Schoeffer,  of  Mentz, 
who  had  previously  announced  in  his  Colophus,  that  the  dis- 
covery was  made  by  John  Faust,  his  grandfather  by  his 
mother's  side. 

This  rivalship  between  SchoefTer  and  Schottus  was  carried  to 
a  considerable  height;  the  former  gained  many  advocates  in 
favor  of  Faust,  without  allowing  Guttemberg  the  least  merit ; 
amongst  the  number  was  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  who,  in 
1518,  granted  him  an  exclusive  privilege  of  printing  Livy. 
Durmg  the  life  of  this  Emperor,  the  latter  remained  silent:  but 


TYPOGRAPH1A.  21 

it  is  said  that  (immediately  after  his  death)  he  endeavored  to 
persuade  his  successor,  Charles  V.  and  the  literati,  that  Faust 
had  no  real  claim  to  the  merit  of  the  invention,  as  the  credit  of 
it  justly  belonged  to  Mentilius.  In  consequence  of  the  above- 
mentioned  grant  of  the  title  of  nobility,  we  are  informed  that,  in 
1520,  he  began  to  prefix  his  family  arms  to  all  the  books  which 
he  afterwards  printed  :  adding, 

"  That  they  were  granted  to  John  Mentilius,  the  first  inventor 
of  printing." 

It  appears  that  coat-armour  had  been  previously  conferred  on 
the  inventors  to  perpetuate  the  discovery,  but  the  grant  to  Men- 
tiiius  was  merely  to  gratify  his  ambition,  as  the  diploma 
contained  not  a  syllable  about  the  invention  of  printing. 

A  variety  of  evidence  might  be  adduced  in  favor  of  Mentilius, 
had  it  not  been  superseded  by  Schcepflin's  discovery  of  the 
document  of  the  law-suit;  from  which  it  appears,  that  Guttem- 
berg  was  the  first  who  attempted  prin ting  at  Strazburg,  although 
his  endeavors  proved  unsuccessful.  We  are  informed  by  Jacob 
Wimphelingius,  that  Mentilius  acquired  a  fortune  by  printing 
his  works  in  a  correct  and  elegant  manner:  therefore,  if  Gut- 
temberg  claims  the  honor  of  the  invention,  the  profitable  harvest 
was  reaped  by  Mentilius. 

Two  Strazburg  Chronologers,  (Dan.  Speklinus,  the  other 
Anonymous)  expressly  inform  us,  that  John  Geinsfleisch,  sen. 
(whom  they  distinguished  from  Guttemberg)  when  he  had 
learned  the  art  from  its  first  inventor,  carried  it  by  theft  to  his 
native  city,  Mentz. 

They  make  Strazburg  the  place  of  the  invention,  and  Men- 
tilius the  inventor,  from  whom  the  types  were  stolen.  These 
writers  are  completely  in  error,  because  Geinsfleisch  was  a 
resident  at  Mentz,  in  1441,  and  Mentilius,  according  to  their 
account,  did  not  begin  to  print  before  1440;  therefore,  it  is 
improbable  that  he  could  have  been  a  servant  to  the  latter:  other 
authorities  state,  that  Mentilius  did  not  practise  prior  to  1444  or 
1448  ;  neither  will  their  narrative  agree  better  with  Guttemberg, 
who  certainly  printed  before  Mentilius,  as,  from  the  evidence 
produced  in  the  law-suit,  1439,  we  have  no  mention  of  any 
servant,  except  Laurentius  Beildek. 


22  TYPOGRAPH1A. 

We  have  endeavored  in  the  foregoing  pages  to  reduce  the 
subject  into  as  small  a  focus  as  possible :  this  we  have  done  by 
bringing  it  to  one  simple  question,  which  in  our  opinion  will 
settle  this  long-contested  point,— viz.:  Had  tlie  Mentz  printers 
any  rival  prior  to  1462  ?  Certainly  not.  Then  we  can  have  no 
hesitation  in  decorating  their  brows  with  the  laurel-wreath,  as 
a  just  reward  for  their  ingenuity  and  exertion,  which  others 
have  vainly  endeavored  to  deprive  them  of. 


The  medallion  in  the  following  page  contains  the  portraits  of 
the  individuals  generally  acknowledged  in  Germany  as  the  first 
printers ;  the  subject  from  which  this  was  copied  is  supposed 
to  have  been  engraved  by  the  famous  Gubitz,  of  Berlin,  from 
an  old  German  painting. 


JOHN    GUTTEMBURG,  JR. 
The  reputed  Inventor: 

JOHN     FAUST, 
The  Promoter: 


PETER    SCHOEFPER, 
The  Improver; 

THIS    MEDALLION 

Is  here  presented, 

that  Posterity  may  know  the  Men 

to  whom  they  stand  so 

much  indebted. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  25 

The  Art  of  Printing,  from  the  best  authorities,  appears  to  have 
been  introduced  into  England,  at  Westminster,  in  1474,  by 
William  Caxton,  mercer,  who  gained  his  knowledge  of  the  Art 
while  travelling  in  Germany  as  agent  for  the  Company  of 
Mercers,  who,  in  those  days,  amongst  other  commodities,  dealt 
in  books,  which  they  either  purchased  in  manuscript  or  caused 
to  be  printed.  In  1474  appeared  the  <e  Game  of  Chess,"  consi- 
dered to  be  the  first  book  printed  in  that  kingdom.  Caxton 
must  have  been  at  that  time  at  least  sixty-two  years  of  age,  and 
was  remarkable  for  his  habits  of  industry.  He  died  about  six 
years  after  the  introduction  of  the  Art,  having,  it  is  said,  in 
addition  to  the  working  of  his  press,  translated  not  fewer  than 
five  thousand  folio  pages. 

Chevellier  mentions  a  book  printed  at  Goa,  in  1577;  and  that 
Prester  John  was  very  anxious,  in  1581,  to  introduce  it  into 
Abyssinia;  and  that  it  actually  passed  from  Spain  into  Morocco 
in  that  country.  S.  Olon,  the  French  Ambassador  to  Morocco, 
assures  us,  that  there  is  scarcely  a  printing-office  in  the  whole 
territory ;  and  that  it  is  a  part  of  their  religion  not  to  suffer  corn, 
horses,  or  books,  to  be  exported;  their  fondness  for  the  latter  is 
increased  by  reason  of  their  scarcity. 

Some  Danish  missionaries  are  said  to  have  sent  a  printing- 
press  and  workmen  to  Tranquebar;  where  they  printed  the 
New  Testament  (in  quarto),  Prayer  Books,  Catechisms,  &,c.,  in 
Portuguese,  and  several  Eastern  languages,  for  promoting  their 
pious  designs. 

A  Russian  merchant,  in  1560,  conveyed  printing  materials 
into  that  state,  and  had  several  works  printed  there ;  but,  being 
a  superstitious  people,  and  fearful  lest  it  might  tend  to  alter  their 
religious  notions,  some  persons  were  employed  to  destroy  the 
press,  &c.  which  circumstance  passed  by  unnoticed,  as  no 
attempt  was  ever  made  to  discover  the  perpetrators.  Early  in 
the  next  century,  several  works  were  printed  at  Moscow  and 
St.  Petersburg;  since  which,  the  art  has  gradually  advanced  in 
that  extensive  territory.  The  Arts  and  Sciences  are  now  im- 
proving. 

The  Art  was  extended  early,  by  means  of  Europeans,  but 
more  particularly  by  the  Spanish  missionaries,  into  Africa  and 


26  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

America.  Mr.  Thomas  in  his  History  of  Printing  in  Jlmerica, 
asserts  that  a  press  was  established  at  Mexico  some  years 
before  1569. 

The  earliest  production  from  the  Peruvian  Press  was  printed 
at  Lima,  by  Father  Pablo  Jos.  de  Arriago,  in  1621.  Mr. 
Thomas  states  its  introduction  about  1590:  most  of  their  works, 
prior  to  the  last  fifty  years,,  are  said  to  have  been  upon  religious 
subjects.  About  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  a 
press  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Spanish  part  of 
St.  Domingo;  as  well  as  into  the  Isle  of  Cuba;  the  government 
principally  employed  these  presses. 

The  first  press  in  North  America,  is  stated  to  have  been  at 
Cambridge,  (Mass.)  in  1639. 

In  the  accomplishment  of  what  we  have  here  undertaken,  we 
shall  be  much  indebted  to  Tliomas'  History  of  Printing,  for  facts 
and  dates  respecting  the  periodicals  published  here,  previous  to 
the  termination  of  the  American  revolution.  In  fact,  there  is 
no  person  to  whom  the  public  is  more  indebted  for  a  correct 
history  of  printing,  than  the  late  venerable  ISAIAH  THOMAS,  of 
Worcester,  whose  vigorous  intellect  raised  him  to  distinction, 
and  secured  those  blessings  which  are  the  never  failing  rewards 
of  industry  and  perseverance.  Mr.  Thomas  was  not  only  the 
patron  of  every  enterprise  which  promised  utility  to  the  rising 
generation,  but,  in  a  particular  manner,  in  his  old  age,  devoted 
his  honestly  acquired  wealth  in  bringing  into  existence  the 
tf  American  Antiquarian  Society,"  which,  in  future  ages,  will 
tell  the  story  of  our  country's  origin  and  growth. 

Among  the  first  settlers  of  New  England  were  many  pious  as 
well  as  learned  men.  They  emigrated  from  a  country  where 
the  press  had  more  license  than  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  and 
they  were  acquainted  with  the  usefulness  of  it.  As  soon  as  they 
had  made  those  provisions  that  were  necessary  for  their  exist- 
ence in  this  land,  which  was  then  a  rude  wilderness,  their  next 
objects  were,  the  establishment  of  schools,  and  a  printing  press; 
the  latter  of  which  was  not  tolerated,  till  many  years  afterward, 
by  the  elder  colony  of  Virginia. 

The  founders  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  consisted  of  but 
a  small  number  of  persons,  who  arrived  at  Salem  in  1628.  A 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  27 

few  more  joined  them  in  1629;  and  governor  Winthrop,  with 
the  addition  of  fifteen  hundred  settlers,,  arrived  in  1630.  These 
last  landed  at  the  place  since  called  Charlestown,  opposite  to 
Boston,,  where  they  pitched  their  tents,  and  built  a  few  huts  for 
shelter.  In  1631.,  they  began  to  settle  Cambridge,  four  miles 
from  the  place  where  they  landed.  They  also  began  a  settle- 
ment on  the  identical  spot  where  Boston  now  stands.  In  1638, 
they  built  an  academy  at  Cambridge,,  which  in  process  of  time 
was  increased  to  a  college ;  and,  in  the  same  year,  they  opened 
a  printing  house  in  that  place.  In  January,  1639,  printing  was 
first  performed  in  that  part  of  North  America,  which  extends 
from  the  gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  frozen  ocean. 

For  this  press  our  country  is  chiefly  indebted  to  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Glover,  a  non-conformist  minister,  who  possessed  a  considerable 
estate,  and  had  left  his  native  country  with  a  determination  to 
settle  among  his  friends,  who  had  emigrated  to  Massachusetts; 
because  in  this  wilderness,  he  could  freely  enjoy,  with  them, 
those  opinions  which  were  not  countenanced  by  the  government 
and  a  majority  of  the  people  in  England. 

Very  little  more  than  the  name  of  this  Father  of  the  American 
press  is  known  among  us.  So  far  as  our  researches  have 
extended,  we  can  only  find  that  His  name  has  been  barely 
mentioned  by  two  respectable  journalists,  Governor  Winthrop, 
and  Captain  Johnson,  who  were  among  the  first  settlers  that 
emigrated  here.  This  was,  probably,  owing  to  his  having  died 
on  his  passage  to  Massachusetts. 

Another  press,  with  types,  and  another  printer,  were,  in  1660, 
sent  over  from  England  by  the  corporation  for  propagating  the 
gospel  among  the  Indians  in  New  England.  This  press,  &,c. 
was  designed  solely  for  the  purpose  of  printing  the  Bible,  and 
other  books,  in  the  Indian  language.  On  their  arrival  they 
were  carried  to  Cambridge,  and  employed  in  the  printing  house 
already  established  in  that  place. 

Notwithstanding  printing  continued  to  be  performed  in  Cam- 
bridge, from  a  variety  of  causes  it  happened  that  many  original 
works  were  sent  from  New  England,  Massachusetts  in  particu- 
lar, to  London,  to  be  printed.  Among  these  causes  the  principal 
were — first,  the  press  at  Cambridge  had,  generally,  full  employ - 
R* 


28  TYPOGRAPHIA 

ment,  secondly,  the  printing  done  there  was  executed  in  an 
inferior  style;  and,,  thirdly,  many  works  on  controverted  points 
of  religion,  were  not  allowed  to  be  printed  in  this  country. 
Hence  it  happened  that  for  more  than  eighty  years  after  printing 
was  first  practised  in  the  colony,  manuscripts  were  occasionally 
sent  to  England  for  publication. 

The  fathers  of  Massachusetts  kept  a  watchful  eye  on  the 
press;  and,  in  neither  a  religious  or  civil  point  of  view,  were 
they  disposed  to  give  it  much  liberty.  Both  the  civil  and  eccle- 
siastical rulers  were  fearful  that  if  it  was  not  under  wholesome 
restraints,  contentions  and  heresies  would  arise  among  the 
people.  In  1662,  the  government  of  Massachusetts  appointed 
licensers  of  the  press;  and  afterward,  in  1664,  passed  a  law  that 
" no  printing  should  be  allowed  in  any  town  within  the  jurisdic- 
tion, except  in  Cambridge" — nor  should  any  thing  be  printed 
there  but  what  the  government  permitted  through  the  agency 
of  those  persons  who  were  empowered  for  the  purpose. — 
Offenders  against  this  regulation  were  to  forfeit  their  presses  to 
the  country,  and  to  be  disfranchised  of  the  privilege  of  printing 
thereafter.  In  a  short  time,  this  law  was  so  far  repealed,  as  to 
permit  the  use  of  a  press  at  Boston,  and  a  person  was  authorized 
to  conduct  it;  subject,  however,  to  the  licensers  \\ho  were 
appointed  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  it. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  press,  in  Massachusetts,  was  free 
from  legal  restraints  till  about  the  year  1755.  Holyoke's 
Almanac,  for  1715,  has,  in  the  title  page,  "Imprimatur,  J. 
Dudley." 

Boston  has  the  credit  of  issuing  the  first  newspaper  in  North 
America,  which  was  commenced  on  Monday,  April  24,  1704, 
by  John  Campbell,  Esq.  under  the  title  of  the  Boston  News 
Letter.  It  was  discontinued,  (1776)  after  being  regularly  pub- 
lished for  nearly  seventy-two  years. 

The  second  newspaper  which  appeared  in  America,  as  well 
as  the  first,  was  published  in  Boston ;  it  was  called  The  Boston 
Gazette;  the  first  number  was  published  December  21,  1719,  on 
a  half-sheet  foolscap  size. 

The  American  Weekly  Mercury  was  commenced  the  day 
following  at  Philadelphia,  which  made  the  third  paper  issued  in 
the  United  States. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  29 

The  third  newspaper  which  appeared  in  Boston  was  the  New 
England  Courant,  established  by  James  Franklin.,  August  17. 
1721,  and  was  printed  on  a  half  sheet  crown  paper.  On  Mr, 
Musgrave's  becoming  proprietor  of  the  Gazette,,  the  printing 
was  taken  from  Franklin,  which  circumstance  probably  led  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Courant;  for  he  warmly  attacked 
Musgrave  and  endeavored  to  have  him  turned  out  of  office.  A 
society  of  gentlemen  furnished  essays  for  this  paper,  which 
were  evidently  written  by  men  of  talents,  attacking  persons  in 
office,  the  clergy  and  the  prevailing  religious  opinions;  and 
opposed  rather  rudely  the  introduction  of  inoculation  for  the 
small  pox.  These  essays  attracted  general  notice,  and  the  paper 
soon  had  warm  advocates  and  zealous  opposers;  and  finally 
roused  the  attention  and  interference  of  the  government.  Dr. 
Increase  Mather  openly  denounced  the  Courant,  by  an  address 
to  the  public,  which  appeared  in  the  Boston  Gazette.  Before 
the  Courant  had  been  printed  a  year,  Franklin  was  imprisoned 
by  order  of  the  government  in  the  common  jail,  where  he 
remained  four  weeks.  After  his  release  from  prison,  the  club 
was  encouraged  to  proceed  with  increased  boldness,  which  led 
to  a  further  interference  of  the  government ;  and  it  was  fi  there- 
upon ordered  that  James  Franklin,  the  printer  and  publisher,  be 
strictly  forbidden  by  this  Court  to  print  or  publish  the  New 
England  Courant,  or  any  pamphlet  or  paper  of  the  like  nature, 
except  it  be  first  supervised  by  the  Secretary  of  this  Province; 
and  the  Justices  of  his  Majesty's  Sessions  of  the  Peace,  for  the 
county  of  Suffolk,  at  their  next  adjournment,  be  directed  to  take 
sufficient  bonds  of  said  Franklin,  for  his  good  behaviour  for 
twelve  month's  time." 

Franklin  published  the  Courant,  notwithstanding,  on  the 
following  Monday,  without  submitting  its  contents  to  the  Secre- 
tary. For  this  neglect,  a  bill  of  indictment  was  preferred  to  the 
grand  jury  against  him  for  contempt  of  an  order  of  the  Court. 
The  jury  returned  " Ignoramus"  on  the  bill,  and  he  was  put 
under  bonds  for  his  good  behavior  pursuant  to  the  order  of  the 
General  Court.  In  consequence  of  things  being  thus  situated, 
it  was  determined  to  alter  the  imprint  by  leaving  out  the  word 
James,  and  inserting  that  of  Benjamin,  in  order  to  evade  the  act. 


30  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

This  was  carried  into  immediate  effect,  and  the  Courant  pur- 
ported to  he  "printed  and  sold  by  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN,,  in 
Q,ueen  street;"  although  he  was  a  minor,  and  an  apprentice  to 
his  brother.  The  paper  continued  to  be  published  in  the  name 
of  Benjamin  Franklin  for  some  time  after  he  left  his  brotner; 
and  for  any  thing  that  appears,  until  its  publication  was  discon- 
tinued in  1727. 

The  British  Colonies  in  America,  and  the  West  India  Island  s^ 
first  received  the  art  in  1751 :  their  productions  were  chiefly 
confined  to  colonial  gazettes,  &.c. 

Port-au-Prince  is  said  to  have  received  a  press  in  1750,  at 
which  an  account  of  a  great  earthquake  (experienced  in  that 
Island,)  was  printed,  in  1751 :  the  presses  under  the  dominion 
of  France  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  use  of  the  government. 

Cicero,  in  his  De  JYatura  Dcorum,  has  a  passage,  from  which 
Toland  supposes  the  moderns  took  the  hint  of  printing.  That 
author  orders  the  types  to  be  made  of  metal,  and  calls  them 
fcrmce  literanirny  the  very  words  used  by  the  first  printers  to 
express  them.  In  VirgiPs  time,  brands,  with  letters,  were  used 
for  marking  cattle,  &c.  with  the  owner's  name. 

In  the  second  book,  he  gives  a  hint  of  separate  cast  letters, 
when  he  speaks  of  some  ingenious  man's  throwing  the  twenty- 
four  letters  of  the  alphabet,  (made  either  of  gold  or  other  metal) 
by  chance  together,  and  thus  producing  The  jlnnals  of  Ennius. 
He  makes  this  observation,  in  opposition  to  the  atheistical  argu- 
ment of  the  creation  of  the  world  by  chance. 

In  the  Philos.  Trans,  we  find  the  emperor  Justin  could  not 
write ;  in  consequence,  a  similar  expedient  to  the  printing  of 
playing  cards  was  resorted  to;  namely,  a  smooth  piece  of  board 
with  holes  cut  through  it,  in  the  form  of  the  letters  of  his  name  ; 
and  when  he  had  occasion  to  sign  anything,  this  was  laid  on 
the  paper,  and  he  marked  the  letters  with  a  pin,  or  stylus 
dipped  in  red  ink,  and  directed  through  the  holes. 

The  following  particulars,  relative  to  the  first  productions  of 
the  art  (though  well  known  to  the  curious,)  will,  w^e  trust,  be 
deemed  acceptable  to  our  readers: — 

With  respect  to  their  forms,  they  were  generally  either  large 
or  small  folios,  or  at  least  quartos:  the  lesser  sizes  were  not  in 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  31 

use.  The  leaves  were  without  running  title,,  direction-word, 
number  of  pages,  or  divisions  into  paragraphs.  The  character 
itself  was  a  rude  old  Gothic  mixed  with  Secretary,  designed  on 
purpose  to  imitate  the  hand-writing  of  those  times;  the  words 
were  printed  so  close  to  one  another,  that  it  was  difficult  and 
tedious  to  be  read,  even  by  those  who  were  used  to  manuscripts, 
and  to  this  method;  and  often  led  the  inattentive  reader  into 
mistakes.  Their  orthography  was  various,  and  often  arbitrary, 
disregarding  method.  They  had  very  frequent  abbreviations, 
which  in  time  grew  so  numerous  and  difficult  to  be  understood, 
that  there  was  a  necessity  of  writing  a  book  to  teach  the  manner 
of  reading  them.  Their  periods  were  distinguished  by  no  other 
point  than  the  double  or  single  one,  that  is,  the  colon  or  full  point; 
but  they  a  little  after,  introduced  an  oblique  stroke,  thus,  /,  which 
answered  the  purpose  of  our  comma.  They  used  no  capital 
letters  to  begin  a  sentence,  or  for  proper  names  of  men  or  places. 
They  left  blanks  for  the  places  of  titles,  initial  letters,  and  other 
ornaments,  in  order  to  have  them  supplied  by  illuminators, 
whose  ingenious  art,  though  in  vogue  before,  and  at  that  time, 
did  not  long  survive  the  masterly  improvements  made  by  the 
printers  in  this  branch  of  their  art.  Those  ornaments  were 
exquisitely  fine,  and  curiously  variegated  with  the  most  beautiful 
colors,  and  even  with  gold  and  silver;  the  margins,  likewise, 
were  frequently  charged  with  a  variety  of  figures,  of  saints, 
birds,  beasts,  monsters,  flowers,  &c.  which  had  sometimes 
relation  to  the  contents  of  the  page,  though  often  none  at  all : 
these  embellishments  were  very  costly;  but  for  those  that  could 
not  afford  a  great  price,  there  were  more  inferior  ornaments, 
which  could  be  done  at  a  much  easier  rate.  The  name  of  the 
printer,  place  of  his  residence,  &c.  &c.  where  either  wholly 
neglected,  or  put  at  the  end  of  the  book,  not  without  some  piou? 
ejaculation  or  doxology.  The  date  was  likewise  omitted,  01 
involved  in  some  crampt  circumstantial  period,  or  else  printed 
either  at  full  length,  or  by  numerical  letters,  and  sometimes 
partly  one  and  partly  the  other ;  thus,  One  Thousand  CCCC 
and  Ixxiiii,  &c.  but  all  of  them  at  the  end  of  the  book.  There 
were  no  variety  of  characters,  no  intermixture  of  Roman  and 
Italic;  they  are  of  later  invention;  but  their  pages  were  con- 


32  TYPOGRAPHY. 

tinued  in  a  Gothic  letter  of  the  same  size  throughout.  They 
printed  but  few  copies  at  once,  for  200  oj  300  were  then 
esteemed  a  large  impression;  though,  upon  the  encouragements 
received  from  the  learned,  they  increased  their  numbers  in 
prt'portion. 

About  1469-70,  alphabetical  tables  of  the  first  words  of  each 
chapter  were  introduced,  as  a  guide  to  the  binder.  Catch-words 
(n^v  gene  rally,  abolished)  were  first  used  at  Venice,  by  Vinde- 
lirflfde  Spire.  The  name  and  place  of  the  inventor  of  signatures 
is  obscured  by  a  dark  cloud. 


STEREOTYPING  seems  to  have  been  invented  in  Scotland,  and 
first  practised  by  William  Ged,  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  year  1725, 
and  when  properly  made  known,  was  hailed  with  acclamation 
by  the  printing  and  publishing  world.  When  the  types  are  set 
with  high  quadrats  and  spaces,  they  are  plastered  over  with 
liquid  stucco  to  the  thickness  of  about  half  an  inch,  so  that  a 
level  cake  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  types.  As  soon  as 
the  stucco  hardens,  which  it  does  almost  immediately,  the  caite 
is  separated  from  the  types,  and,  on  being  turned  up,  shows  a 
complete  hollow  or  mould-like  representation  of  the  faces  of  the 
types  and  every  thing  else  in  the  page.  There  being  no  longer 
any  use  for  the  types,  they  are  carried  off  and  distributed.  As 
for  the  cake,  it  is  put  into  an  oven  and  baked  to  a  certain  degree 
of  heat  and  hardness,  like  a  piece  of  pottery.  It  is  next  laid  in 
a  square  iron  pan,  having  a  lid  of  the  same  metal,  with  holes  at 
the  corners.  The  pan  is  now  immersed  in  a  pot  of  molten  metal, 
and  being  allowed  to  fill  by  means  of  the  holes,  it  is  at  length 
taken  out  and  put  aside  till  it  is  cool.  On  opening  the  pan,  a 
curious  appearance  is  presented.  The  metal  has  run  into  the 
mould  side  of  the  cake,  and  formed  a  thin  plate  all  over,  exhi- 
:  biting  the  perfect  appearance  of  the  faces  of  the  types  on  which 
the  stucco  was  plastered.  Thus  is  procured  a  fictitious  page  of 
types,  not  thicker  than  the  sixth  of  an  inch,  and  which  can  be 
printed  from  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  a  real  page. 
Such  is  the  process  of  stereotyping,  or  making  fixed,  or  sta- 
tionary types  ; — and  now  for  the  utility  of  the  invention  : 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  33 

In  all  cases  of  book  work  where  a  small  edition  only  will  be 
required,  it  is  best  to  print  from  types,  and  then  distribute  them : 
but  in  most  cases  of  standard  works  or  books  published  in  parts, 
or  numbers,  stereotyping  becomes  absolutely  necessary.  It  is 
easy  to  perceive  the  reason  for  this.  When  books  are  published 
in  numbers,  it  often  happens  that  many  more  copies  are  sold  of 
one  number  than  of  another,  and  unless  all  the  types  be  kept 
up  to  complete  sets  in  the  hands  of  the  publisher,  or  to  Bfint 
copies  according  to  the  increased  demand,  a  serious  loss  ismis- 
tained.  The  manufacture  of  stereotype  plates  is,  therefore, 
simply  a  means  of  keeping  up  fictitious  types  to  answer  future 
demands,  at  an  expense  infinitely  inferior  to  that  of  keeping  the 
actual  pages  standing. 


LITHOGRAPHY  is  the  art  of  printing  from  stone.  It  is  only  of 
recent  invention,  and  differs  very  considerably  in  principle, 
from  the  art  of  printing  from  moveable  types,  wooden  blocks  or 
copper  or  other  plates.  The  process  consists  in  writing  on  a 
particular  kind  of  stone,  and  from  thence  working  off,  by  a 
press,  any  number  of  copies,  the  writing  thus  standing  in  relief 
on  the  stone  like  raised  letters.  The  peculiar  value  of  this 
ingenious  art  is  in  the  cheapness  and  ease  with  which  it  accom- 
plishes impressions  of  pictorial  delineations  or  manuscript.  The 
discovery  of  the  Lithographic  art  was  made  upwards  of  thirty 
years  since  by  Senefelder,  a  native  of  Germany — a  country  to 
which  the  human  race  is  also  indebted  for  the  more  noble  art  of 
printing  from  types;  but  since  that  period  very  great  improve- 
ments have  been  made  upon  it. 

The  history  of  the  origin  of  lithography  is  instructive,  and 
affords  to  the  young  an  additional  instance  of  the  triumph  of 
genius  over  poverty  and  its  attendant  disadvantages.  Like 
every  new  invention,  when  first  attempted  to  be  brought  -into 
notice,  it  met  with  all  the  obstacles  which  ignorance  or  prejudice 
could  throw  in  its  way  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  years  of  laborious 
perseverance,  accompanied  wilh  all  the  evils  attendant  on  very 
limited  means,  that  the  inventor  succeeded  in  establishing  his  re- 
putation, and  gaining  for  the  new  art  its  due  degree  of  admiration. 


34  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

Senefelder  relates  with  the  greatest  candor,  that  having  be- 
come an  author  and  at  the  same  time  being  so  poor  that  he 
could  not  raise  the  necessary  funds  for  the  printing  of  his  work 
with  a  view  to  publication,  he  endeavored  to  devise  some  method 
by  which  his  object  might  be  attained,  and,  after  much  anxious 
consideration,  he  resolved  on  attempting  to  accomplish  it  with 
his  own  hands.  With  this  view,  his  attention  was  first  directed 
to^veral  original  curious  modes  of  stereotype,  some  of  which 
he  considerably  matured,  and  had  his  circumstances  at  this 
period  been  such  as  to  admit  of  his  devoting  a  sufficient  time  to 
the  perfecting  of  this  first  part  of  his  undertaking,  it  is  question- 
able whether  his  talents  would  have  ever  been  forced  into  that 
particular  line  of  study,  which,  in  the  end,  acquired  for  his 
name  so  great  a  celebrity.  The  same  remark  is  applicable  to 
some  of  the  other  ingenious  attempts  which  preceded  his  great 
discovery.  For  a  time,  however,  plan  succeeded  plan,  each 
being  abandoned  in  turn,  as  new  and  more  plausible  theories 
struck  his  fancy,  and  in  this  way  did  he  persevere,  for  many 
months,  with  various  degrees  of  success,  but  without  the 
necessary  results;  and  he  at  last  relinquished  this  course  of 
experiments  altogether,  as  presenting  too  many  obstacles  to  be 
overcome  by  an  individual  in  his  circumstances. 

Disappointed,  but  not  disheartened,  in  not  having  been  so 
successful  in  his  operations  as  he  had  anticipated,  we  next  find 
him  attempting  to  realize  his  hopes  by  substituting  plates  of 
copper  and  tin  for  his  metal  and  composition  blocks;  but  this 
second  course  of  experiments  was  attended  with  little  better 
success  than  the  former;  for,  after  much  labor,  and  numerous 
trials  with  the  etching  needle,  and  by  writing  on  the  copper 
with  different  chemical  inks  of  his  own  composition,  this  medium 
was  found  to  be  liable  to  all  the  objections  which  had  deterred 
him  from  prosecuting  the  stereotype  plan.  Being,  however, 
still  of  the  opinion  that  his  object  was  to  be  accomplished  by  art 
alone,  and  having  laid  aside  his  copper  plates  for  a  time,  as  too 
expensive,  he  began  to  look  around  for  a  substitute  which  would 
supply  their  place  for  all  the  purposes  of  practice,  and  at  a 
much  less  cost.  He  was  not  long  in  determining  this  point; 
for,  being  aware  that  certain  kinds  of  stone  had  often  been  used 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  35 

for  similar  purposes,  he  converted  the  slab  on  which  he  ground 
his  colors  into  a  plate  for  exercising  in  writing,  and  Ibund  it 
answered  his  expectations  completely.  Experiments  now  fol- 
lowed each  other  in  rapid  succession,  all  tending  to  encourage 
him  in  the  prosecution  of  his  design ;  and,  when  at  length  these 
stone  plates  were  rendered  fit  for  undergoing  the  operations  of 
the  printing  press,  he  was  greatly  pleased  to  find  that  numerous 
impressions  might  be  taken  on  paper,  without  materially  in- 
juring the  original. 

We  shall  now  at  once  advert  to  the  time  when  circumstances 
conspired  to  force  upon  his  attention  those  properties  of  the  art, 
which,  on  their  first  unfolding  themselves,  so  astonished  and 
delighted  him.  "  I  had  (says  he)  just  succeeded  in  my  little 
laboratory  in  polishing  a  stone  plate  which  I  intended  to  cover 
with  etching  ground,  in  order  to  continue  my  exercises  in 
writing  backwards,  when  my  mother  entered  the  room,  and 
desired  me  to  write  her  a  bill  for  the  washer- woman,  who  was 
waiting  for  the  linen.  I  happened  not  to  have  even  the  smallest 
slip  of  paper  at  hand,  as  my  little  stock  of  paper  had  been 
entirely  exhausted  by  taking  proof  impressions  from  the  stones; 
nor  was  there  even  a  drop  of  ink  in  the  inkstand.  As  the 
matter  would  not  admit  of  delay,  and  we  had  nobody  in  the 
house  to  send  for  a  supply  of  the  deficient  materials,  I  resolved 
to  write  the  list  with  my  chemical  ink,  on  the  stone  which  I 
had  just  polished,  and  from  which  I  could  copy  it  at  leisure." 

When  about  to  remove  this  writing  from  the  stone,  some  time 
afterwards,  the  idea  struck  him,  that,  by  submitting  its  surface 
to  the  action  of  aquafortis,  such  an  elevation  might  be  given 
to  the  writing  as  would  render  it  suitable,  in  the  same  way  as 
wood-engravings,  for  receiving  printing  ink.  The  experiment 
exceeded  his  most  sanguine  hopes,  and  he  lost  no  time  in 
following  up  his  success  with  others,  all  tending  to  convince 
him  that  he  had  discovered  a  new  and  important  art. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen,  that,  to  a  very  simple  occurrence  in 
itself,  Senefelder  was  indebted  for  the  hint  on  which  hinged  all 
his  succeeding  improvements. 

Having  now  briefly  adverted  to  some  of  the  leading  incidents 
which  ultimately  led  to  the  discovery  of  chemical  lithography, 

4 


30  TYPOGHAPHIA. 

wo  snail  next  proceed  to  the  notice  of  such  particulars  concern- 
ing the  progress  of  the  new  art  under  the  fostering  care  of  its 
author,  as  may  be  thought  generally  interesting. 

Let  it  not  be  imagined  that  Senefelder's  difficulties  ceased  with 
this  discovery  :  the  fact  is  otherwise;  for,,  in  addition  to  the  many 
obstacles  which  he  had  to  combat  from  lacking  the  necessaiy 
funds  for  the  prosecution  of  his  labors,  others  were  not  wanting 
of. a  nature  equally  serious,,  and  which  were  to  him  the  source 
of  long  and  painful  anxiety.  Among  the  rest,  it  was  not  a  little 
annoying  to  know  that  others  were  beginning  to  lay  claim  to  the 
merit  of  a  new  discovery. 

For  a  series  of  years,  Senefelder's  patience  and  perseverance, 
under  the  most  disadvantageous  circumstances,  were  truly 
astonishing;  and  we  shall  now  proceed  briefly  to  detail  such 
other  particulars  in  further  illustration  of  the  preceding  remarks, 
as  may  be  deemed  necessary  for  completing  this  part  of  oui 
subject. 

Satisfied  as  to  the  originality  of  his  new  discovery,  Senefelder 
became  anxious  to  turn  it  to  account,  by  laying  it  before  the 
world;  and  in  order  to  raise  the  necessary  funds  for  at  once 
effecting  this  object,  we  find  him,  when  all  other  means  had 
failed,  offering  himself  as  a  substitute  for  a  friend  who  was  then 
a  soldier  in  the  service  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  but  with  hi* 
usual  want  of  success;  for,  on  presenting  himself  at  Ingolstadt 
for  the  purpose  of  being  enrolled,  it  was  discovered  that  he  was 
not  a  native  of  the  electorate,  and,  consequently,  inadmissible 
to  its  army.  His  last  hope  seemed  now  to  have  failed  him,  and 
he  describes  his  feelings  as  being  at  this  time  in  a  state  "  bor- 
dering on  despair."  However,  it  was  not  long  ere  his  prospects 
began  again  to  brighten  a  little ;  and  he  at  length  succeeded  in 
publishing,  in  conjunction  with  the  composer,  a  collection  of 
music,  the  execution  of  which  was  greatly  admired,  and  which 
obtained  for  him  the  patronage  of  the  elector,  and  A  promise  of 
an  exclusive  privilege. 

About  this  time  another  candidate  for  the  honor  of  having 
discovered  the  new  art  came  forward  in  the  person  of  M. 
Schmidt,  professor  of  the  Royal  College;  and  although,  for  a 
time,  the  station  which  this  gentleman  filled  helped  to  support 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  37 

his  pretensions  against  his  less  fortunate  rival,  public  opinion 
by  degrees  became  less  divided,  and  ultimately  there  prevailed 
but  one  belief  on  the  subject. 

It  was  not  till  after  having  labored  a  considerable  time  in  his 
new  profession,  and  experiencing  innumerable  inconveniences 
from  being  compelled  to  execute  all  his  writings  on  the  stone 
backwards,  that  he  commenced  another  series  of  experiments, 
the  object  of  which,  was  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  writing  on 
the  stone,  by  previously  doing  it  on  paper,  and  then  transferring 
it  from  the  paper  to  the  stone,  reversed.  Some  thousands  of 
experiments  were  made  before  he  was  enabled  to  produce  a 
composition  for  preparing  the  surface  -of  the  paper  suited  for 
all  the  purposes  which  he  had  in  view,  and  it  was  this  property 
of  the  new  art  which  more  particularly  attracted  public  notice, 
from  the  incalculable  benefits  which  it  was  foreseen  would  be 
conferred  on  all  kinds  of  business  when  fairly  brought  into 
general  practice.  It  was  about  this  time  also  that  he  invented 
the  lever  press,  which  added  greatly  to  the  comfort  and  certainty 
of  the  operations  in  the  printing  department  of  lithography. 

Having  at  length  obtained  an  exclusive  privilege  for  exer- 
cising his  art  in  Bavaria,  he  did  not  consider  it  any  longer 
necessary  to  keep  the  process  a  secret,  and  it  soon  spread  over 
the  greater  part  of  Germany;  but  his  experience  enabled  him 
for  several  years  to  outstrip  all  his  competitors  in  so  far  as  the 
execution  of  his  work  was  concerned,  although,  in  every  other 
respect,  he  seemed  to  be  almost  the  only  one  in  whose  hands 
the  art  did  not  give  ample  returns  both  for  money  and  labor.  In 
no  other  way  can  this  uniform  want  of  success  be  accounted 
for,  than  by  supposing,  that,  while  others  were  making  the 
most  of  what  he  had  already  discovered,  he  was  devoting  much 
of  his  time  to  the  experimental  part  of  the  business.  This  in  fact 
was  -the  case. 

About  the  year  1800,  Senefelder  went  to  London  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  himself  there  as  a  lithographer,  but  a 
few  months  sufficed  to  convince  him  that  he  had  little  chance 
of  succeeding  in  his  undertaking;  and  he  returned  to  his  own 
country,  where,  on  his  arrival,  he  found  that  many  attempts 
had  been  made  in  his  absence  to  deprive  him  of  the  benefit  of 


88  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

his  privilege.  Among  the  most  forward  in  this  scheme  were 
two  of  his  brothers,  to  whom  he  had  communicated  all  the 
secrets  of  the  art,  and  it  took  some  time  to  counteract  the  bad 
effects  of  their  ungenerous  conduct.  Finding  that,  in  his  native 
place  (Munich,)  others  were  reaping  many  of  the  advantages 
which  by  right  should  have  been  the  reward  of  his  own 
industry,  he  was  induced  to  go  to  Vienna,  for  the  purpose  of 
superintending  a  calico  printing  establishment,  the  operations 
of  which  were  to  be  conducted  on  the  principles  of  the  new  art; 
and  here,  for  the  space  of  several  years,  his  talents  were  entirely 
devoted  to  this  new  undertaking;  but,  at  the  end  of  which  time, 
from  a  variety  of  causes  over  which  he  had  no  control,  he  was 
again  thrown  upon  the  world,  destitute  of  every  thing  save  the 
resources  of  his  own  genius.  It  was  not  till  about  the  year  1809 
that  Senefelder  was  extricated  from  the  difficulties  of  his  situa- 
tion, by  being  appointed  inspector  of  the  royal  lithographic 
establishment  of  Munich,  which  at  once  placed  him  above  the 
necessity  of  exercising  his  profession  as  a  means  for  gaining  his 
daily  subsistence,  and  enabled  him  to  devote  a  portion  of  his  time 
to  tne  improvement  of  such  branches  of  the  art,  as,  in  his  former 
circumstances,  he  had  never  found  it  possible  to  effect. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  not  bek  out  of  place  to  remark,  that,  in 
the  case  of  Senefelder,  we  have  another  instance  to  the  many 
recorded  facts  in  the  lives  of  eminent  men,  of  the  successful 
pursuit  of  knowledge  under  extraordinary  difficulties — present- 
ing an  example  worthy  of  our  highest  admiration  and  respect. 


Hopeless  would  be  our  task,  were  we  to  endeavor  to  trace  the 
subject  of  ENGRAVING  to  its  original  source:  after  we  have 
explored  one  path,  we  find  ourselves  bewildered  in  a  second, 
and  so  in  a  third,  till  at  length  we  finally  lose  ourselves  in  the 
endless  mazes  of  despair. 

It  has  been  contended  by  some  writers,  that  the  art  of  impres- 
sion was  well  known  to  the  ancients;  in  confirmation  of  this, 
they  instance  the  stamps  of  iron  and  other  metals,  with  which 
bales  of  goods  and  various  articles  of  their  manufacture  were 
marked,  throughout  Italy  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  duiing  the 


TYPOGRAPHIC  39 

• 

low  ages :  and  that  the  art  of  taking  impressions  from  engraved 
blocks  of  wood  is  nothing  more  than  a  principle  familiarly 
known  to  the  ancients  from  time  immemorial;  consequently,  it 
is  not  worthy  the  appellation  of  a  discovery ;  even  Typography 
itself  is  considered  by  them  as  scarcely  deserving  the  name  of  an 
invention.  It  appears  that  the  ancient  artists  used  separate 
letters  (similar  to  our  bookbinder's  tools)  for  the  purpose  of 
stamping  the  inscriptions,  &c.  upon  their  lamps,  their  vases, 
and  their  bassi-relievi  of  clay ;  which  being  first  cast,  were 
afterwards  finished  by  the  hand  of  the  modeller.  The  mode  of 
indentation  here  noticed,  being  that  of  pressing  one  body  against 
another  body  of  a  softer  texture,  thereby  occasioning  a  change 
of  form  in  its  surface:  the  impression  from  engraved  blocks  or 
letters,  primed  with  ink,  is  not  merely  that  of  indention  upon 
the  paper,  but  a  change  of  color,  from  the  black  tint  with  which 
the  projecting  parts  were  charged,  previous  to  the  operation  of 
printing.  We  have  little  proof  that  the  ancients  had  a  know- 
ledge of  this  latter  mode  of  impression ;  one  instance  has  been 
adduced :  this  is  an  account  of  a  sigillum  of  a  very  rare  kind  in 
the  Duke  of  Richmond's  collection,  the  letters  of  which  are 
raised,  as  well  as  the  rim,  after  the  manner  of  our  printing 
types.  This  stamp  is  of  true  ancient  brass;  it  is  nearly  two 
inches  long,  and  one  in  breadth ;  on  the  back  is  a  ring,  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  it  when  the  impression  is  made.  The  letters 
are  in  Ronum  capitals,  standing  in  two  rows.  It  contains 
c  AIUS  JULIUS 

CJECILIUS     HERMIAS^ 

which  must  have  been  the  name  of  some  private  man,  no 
account  of  such  person  being  found  upon  record.  The  ground 
of  this  seal  being  uneven,  proves  that  it  was  intended  to  make 
an  impression  on  a  thin  substance,,  whereas,  if  it  were  stamped 
on  any  thing  soft,  the  unevenness  of  the  ground  would  be 
visible,  which  must  destroy  its  appearance.  This  signet  was 
found  near  Rome,  and  is  allowed  to  be  the  most  ancient  sample 
of  printing  known:  from  the  appearance  of  the  metal,  it  is 
judged  to  be  of  the  Higher  Empire. 

Impressions  have  been  taken  from  it  on  paper,  with  modern 
printing  ink,  which  proves  the  use  it  was  intended  for;  the 
4* 


40  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

mark  performs  its  office  as  well  as  any  set  of  letters  could  do  in 
a  similar  manner.  From  this  circumstance  we  may  conclude, 
that  the  Romans  were  acquainted  with  the  essence  of  printing, 
nothing  more  being  required  to  form  a  page,  than  to  increase 
the  length  and  number  of  the  lines,  which  would  have  been 
similar  to  the  first  printer's  rude  productions. 

It  muat  appear  evident,  that  the  impressions  of  the  first 
printers  were  made  from  wooden  blocks,  after  the  method  prac- 
tised by  the  Chinese.  Mr.  Bagford  thinks  that  the  hint  was 
taken  from  ancient  medals  and  seals. 

According  to  Vasari,  the  important  discovery  of  Chalcography 
was  made  by  Thomas  Finiguerra,  a  Florentine  goldsmith  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  who  lived  from  1400  to  1460.  The  manner 
in  which  he  made  this  discovery,  is  thus  given  by  the  Rev.  T. 
F.  Dibdin. 

"  Of  engraving  upon  copper  the  earliest  known  impression  is 
that  executed  by  one  Thomaso  Finiguerra,  a  goldsmith  of  Flo- 
rence, with  the  date  of  1460  upon  it.  One  of  the  following 
circumstances  is  supposed  to  have  given  rise  to  the  discovery. 
Finiguerra  chanced  to  cast,  or  let  fall  a  piece  of  copper, 
engraved  and  filled  with  ink,  into  melted  sulphur:  and  observing 
that  the  exact  impression  of  his  work  was  left  on  the  sulphur, 
ne  repeated  the  experiment  on  moistened  paper,  rolling  it  gently 
with  a  roller.  This  origin  has  been  admitted  by  Lord  Walpole 
and  Mr.  Landseer;  but  another  has  been  also  mentioned  by 
Huber: — "  It  is  reported,"  says  he,  "that  a  washer- woman  left 
some  linen  upon  a  plate  or  dish  on  which  Finiguerra  had  just 
been  engraving;  and  that  an  impression  of  the  subject  engraved, 
however  imperfect,  came  off  upon  the  linen ;  occasioned  by  its 
weight  and  moistness." 


Ol  all  the  discoveries  which  have  been  made,  we  conceive  the 
reflecting  mind  will  acknowledge  that  none  have  tended  more  to 
the  improvements  and  comforts  of  society  than  that  of  Printing; 
in  truth,  it  would  almost  be  impossible  to  enumerate  the  advan- 
tages derived  by  all  professions  from  the  streams  of  this  in- 
valuable fountain,  this  main-spring  of  all  our  transactions  in 


TYPOGRAPHIC  41 

life.  It  has  been  justly  remarked  by  a  celebrated  writer,,  that, 
were  the  starry  heavens  deficient  of  one  constellation,  the 
vacuum  could  not  be  better  supplied,  than  by  the  introduction 
of  a  printing  press. 

The  more  we  reflect,  the  greater  becomes  our  surprise,  till  at 
length  we  ate  lost  in  wonder  and  astonishment,  that  the  art 
should  have  lain  dormant  for  so  many  generations,  (when  the 
principle  was  so  universally  known,)  without  being  brought 
into  general  use:  still  we  may  consider  it  fortunate  in  other 
respects;  and  was,  no  doubt,  ordered  for  a  wise  purpose, 
because,  had  it  received  its  birth  during  the  dark  ages,  before 
civilization  began  to  dawn,  it  is  not  improbable,  (considering 
the  opposition  it  at  first  met  with,)  that  it  would  have  been 
strangled  in  its  infancy,  and  consigned  to  an  early  tomb !  But 
Providence  had  ordained  it  otherwise.  The  first  printers,  as 
though  aware  of  the  consequence  of  too  early  an  exposure, 
administered  an  oath  of  secrecy  to  their  servants;  and  these 
deserving  individuals  indefatigably  labored  for  the  space  of 
twenty  years,  until  the  infant,  which  they  had  sedulously 
rocked  in  the  cradle  of  industry,  arrived  at  full  maturity :  then 
it  was  that  this  noble  invention  filled  Europe  with  amazement 
and  consternation. 

Viewing  the  subject  in  its  proper  light,  can  we  too  highly 
prize  that  art,  which  has,  and  ever  must  continue  (in  opposition 
to  all  attempts  to  shackle  it)  not  only  to  amuse  arid  instruct  the 
young;  but  also  to  cheer  and  console  the  aged,  while  journeying 
to  the  close  of  this  vale  of  tears  ?  It  is  much  to  be  regretted, 
that  many  of  those  on  whom  Providence  has  so  profusely 
lavished  her  bounty,  should  withhold  their  assistance  to  the 
laborers  in  this  vineyard:  in  short,  this  art,  above  all  others, 
justly  deserves  to  be  encouraged;  because,  from  it  we  derive 
almost  every  intellectual  comfort,  which  man  can  boast  on  this 
side  the  grave. 


TYPOGRAPHIA: 


THE   PRINTEK'S   INSTKUCTOB. 


Though  hard's  our  task,  we  fearless  tread  this  ground, 

Hope  whispers  us,  "  No  work  is  perfect  found:73 

Embolden 'd  thus,  we  now  proceed  to  state, 

For  others'  use,  what  to  pur  Art  relate : 

Should  the  fastidious  Critic  vainly  try 

Our  best  endeavors  with  his  jaundic'd  eye, 

These  questions  let  us  ask,  to  set  him  right, 

That  he  may  view  us  in  a  favor'd  light: 

Has  thy  eye  yet  a  perfect  work  e'er  seen  ? 

Look  not  from  us  for  what  has  never  been ! 

How  can  imperfect  man  expect  to  find 

That  which  is  not  within  the  human  mind  ? 

Sach  being  the  case,  our  work  we  humbly  trust 

T'  the  Reader's  candor — Americans  are  just: 

To  serve  the  Art,  and  men's  good  will  attain. 

Should  we  succeed,  Ambition's  height  we  gain. 


IN  performing  this  part  of  our  duty,  we  shall  endeavor,  to  the 
utmost  of  our  humble  ability,. to  explain  every  thing  in  as 
concise  and  clear  a  manner  as  possible ;  at  the  same  time  we 
shall  omit  nothing,  however  trivial,  that  may  be  connected  with 
this  important  subject.  In  doing  this,  we  are  fully  aware  that 
some  will  condemn  such  minutiae  as  unnecessary :  but,  let  us 
ask,  is  it  requisite,  because  a  few  are  acquainted  with  it,  that 
the  information  should  be  withheld  from  others  ?  It  is  a  subject 
which  cannot  fail  to  interest  the  general  reader,  and  particularly 
so  all  the  admirers  of  the  Typographic  Art. 

When  any  one  pronounces  a  printing-office  as  complete,  it 
ought  to  be  considered  as  a  mere  compliment,  because,  in  a 
strict  and  literal  sense,  no  office  can  deserve  this  epithet,  unless 
it  is  furnished  with  all  the  fusil  metal  types  for  both  modern  and 
ancient  languages :  we  believe  that  scarcely  any  ofhee  can  boast 


44  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

the  appellation.  In  truth,  to  supply  these  almost  unnecessary 
fonts  would  only  waste  a  man's  property ;  it  is  sufficient  ibr  a 
printer  to  have  suitable  types  for  the  language  of  the  country 
where  he  resides. 


PROPERTIES  AND  SHAPES  OF  TYPES. 

THE  Types  or  Letters,  most  generally  used  for  printing  in 
Europe  and  America,  are  termed  Roman,  Italic,  and  Ola 
English,  or  Black  Letter. 


ROMAN    LETTER. 

ROMAN  letter  has  long  been  held  in  the  highest  estimation; 
and  is  the  national  character  not  only  of  this  country,  but  also 
of  England,  France,  Spain,  Portugal  and  Italy.  In  Germany, 
and  the  kingdoms  and  states  which  surround  the  Baltic,  letters 
are  used  which  owe  their  foundation  to  the  Gothic  character; 
but  even  in  those  nations,  works  are  printed  in  their  own  lan- 
guage with  Roman  letters.  The  reason  why  the  Germans,  and 
those  who  patronise  the  Gothic  characters,  have  not  altogether 
rejected  them  for  the  Roman,  has  been  chiefly  owing  to  their 
apprehensions  of  sharing  the  fate  of  the  primitive  printers,  who 
suffered  greatly  in  their  attempt,  from  the  dislike  then  evinced 
by  the  learned  to  works  which  had  been  printed  in  that  character. 
This  compelled  them  to  return  to  their  old  mode  of  using  the 
Gothic,  to  which  men  of  literature  were  more  accustomed,  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  writings  of  the  monks,  which  at  that  time 
were  held  in  great  veneration.  From  the  superstition  of  the  age, 
the  lower  classes  were  easily  prevailed  on  to  reject  whatever  had 
the  least  appearance  of  infringing  on  monastic  influence. 

The  same  reason  may  be  assigned  why  the  Dutch  still  adhere 
to  the  black  letter  in  printing  their  books  of  devotion  and  reli- 
gious treatises,  while  they  make  use  of  the  Roman  in  their 
curious  and  learned  works. 

In  Sweden  much  greater  improvements  have  been  made, 
which  is  principally  owing  to  the  countenance  and  support  of 


TYPOGRAPHTA.  45 

men  of  authority,  learning",  and  taste.  We  may  reasonably 
liupe,  from  the  pleasing  aspect  of  the  present  age,  when  man- 
kind have  dared  to  burst  the  fetters  of  prejudice  and  superstition, 
being-  determined  to  exercise  their  better  judgment,  and  adopt 
plans  more  congenial  to  true  taste,  that  the  Roman  character 
will  be  universally  employed  in  all  civilized  states. 

The  Roman  letter,  it  may  be  concluded,  owes  its  origin  to  the 
nauon  whence  it  derives  its  name;  though  the  face  of  the 
present  and  ancient  Roman  letters  materially  differ,  from  the 
improvements  they  have  undergone  at  various  times. 

That  good  Roman  makes  the  best  figure  in  a  specimen  of 
typography,  cannot  be  disputed;  and  this  superiority  is  greatly 
improved  by  the  founders  of  the  present  day.  A  printer,  in  his 
choice  of  type,  should  not  only  attend  to  the  cut  of  the  letter, 
but  also  observe  that  its  shape  be  perfectly  true,  and  that  it  lines 
or  ranges  with  accuracy.  The  quality  of  the  mftal  of  which  it 
is  composed,  and  the  finish  of  the  letter,  demand  also  his 
particular  attention,  as  the  great  competition  for  low  prices 
among  some  of  the  smaller  foundries,  (which  have  sprung  into 
existence  through  the  facilities  afforded  them,  of  multiplying 
rtuitrices  by  the  Electrotype  process,)  has  induced  1&em  to  use 
an  inferior  metal,  and  to  turn  out  their  letters  without  du« 
regard  to  that  nicety  of  finish  so  necessary  for  proper  justifi- 
cation. 

It  is  equally  important  that  types  should  have  a  deep  face, 
which  will  depend  upon  the  depth  of  the  punches,  their  hollows 
being  in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  respective  letters,  and 
likewise  that  the  letter  have  a  deep  nick,  which  should  differ 
from  other  founts  of  that  body  in  the  same  house. 


ITALIC  LETTER. 

For  the  invention  of  this  letter  we  are  indebted  to  Jlldus  Manutius, 
by  birth  a  Roman,  who  erected  a  printing  office  in  Venice,  1496, 
where  lie  introduced  the  Roman  types  of  a  neater  cut,  and  gave 
birth  to  that  beautiful  letter  which  is  known  to  most  nations  by  the 
name  of  Italic;  though  the  Germans,  and  their  adherents ,  sJww 


46  TYPOGUAPHIA. 

themselves  as  ungenerous  in  this  respect  as  they  did  with  the 
Roman,  by  calling  it  Cursiv,  in  order  to  stifle  the  memory  of  its 
original  descent y»and  deprive  the  Romans  of  the  merit  due  to  their 
ingenuity. 

In  the  first  instance  it  was  termed  Venitian,  from  Manutius 
being  a  resident  at  Venice,  where  he  brought  it  to  perfection ; 
but  not  long  after,  it  was  dedicated  to  the  state  of  Italy,  to 
prevent  any  dispute  that  might  arise  from  other  nations  claim- 
ing a  priority. 

Italic  was  originally  designed  to  distinguish  such  parts  of  a 
book  as  might  be  considered  not  strictly  to  belong  to  the  body  of 
the  work,  as  Prefaces,  Introductions,  Annotations,  &,c.  all  which 
sub-parts  of  a  work  were  formerly  printed  in  this  character ;  so 
that  at  least  two-fifths  of  a  fount  was  comprised  of  Italic  letter. 

At  present  it  is  used  more  sparingly,  the  necessity  being 
supplied  by  tfle  more  elegant  mode  of  introducing  extracts 
within  inverted  commas,  and  poetry  and  annotations  in  a 
smaller  sized  type.  It  is  often  serviceable  in  distinguishing  the 
head  or  subject  matter  of  a  chapter  from  the  chapter  itself,  but 
is  too  often  made  use  of  to  emphasize  sentences  or  words 
without  any  direct  rule. 

That  this  character  was  not  designed  to  distinguish  proper 
names,  nor  for  several  other  uses  to  which  it  has  been  applied, 
can  be  readily  proved,  even  from  works  printed  in  this  country. 
Many  have  considered  it  as  depriving  Roman  of  its  beauty,  by 
loading  it  with  Italic  words  and  terms  of  common  signification 
and  meaning;  and  have  thought  it  inconsistent  to  intermix 
letter  of  an  erect  position  with  that  of  an  oblique  inclination. 

It  destroys  in  a  great  measure  the  beauty  of  printing,  and 
often  confuses  the  reader  where  it  is  improperly  applied,  who, 
pausing  to  consider  why  such  words  are  more  strongly  noted, 
loses  the  context  of  the  sentence,  and  has  to  revert  back  to 
regain  the  sense  of  his  subject. 

Italic  if  justly  formed,  discovers  a  particular  delicacy,  and 
requires  considerable  mathematical  nicety  in  the  letter-cutter  to 
keep  the  slopings  within  the  degree  requisite  for  each  body :  but 
this  is  not  always  attended  to,  as  a  want  of  uniformity  is  too 
often  observed  in  two  letters  of  a  particular  sort  coming  to- 


TYPOGRAPHtA.  47 

gether,  which  require  a  hair  space  between  them  to  prevent 
their  riding,  and  occasions  an  unpleasant  gap ;  this  is  too  fre- 
quently the  case  where  the  Italic  capitals  F,  T*  V,  and  W,  are 
followed  by  an  ascending  letter,  as  in  Florence,  Tliames, 
Victory,  Wheresoever,  &c.  &,c 


BLACK  LETTER. 

Sljis  letter  totyicl)  is  nseb  in  (England  anb  America, 
bescenfceir  from  tl)e  ©ottyic  characters :  it  is  calleb 
®otl)ic  bg  same,  anir  ©1&  (gnglisl)  bg  others;  but 
printers  term  it  Slack  £etter,  on  account  of  its  taking  a 
larger  compass  tl)an  either  Boman  or  Jftalic,  tlje  full 
anb  spreabing  strokes  thereof  appearing  more  black 
npon  paper. 

On  the  introduction  of  the  Roman  character,  the  use  of  black 
letter  began  to  decline,  and  it  was  seldom  used  except  in  Law 
works,  particularly  Statute  Law;  it  was  at  length  expelled  from 
these,  and  only  made  its  appearance  in  the  heads  of  Law  blanks, 
and  as  a  general  display  letter. 


DIFFERENT  SIZES  OF  PRINTING  LETTERS. 

THE  several  bodies  to  which  printing  letters  are  cast  in  England 
and  America,  are  twenty  in  number,  viz. 

1  Diamond.  11  English. 

2  Pearl.  12  Columbian. 

3  Agate.  13  Great  Primer. 

4  Nonpareil.  14  Paragon. 

5  Minion.  15  Double  Small  Pica. 

6  Brevier.  16  Double  Pica. 

7  Bourgeois.  17  Double  English. 

8  Long  Primer.  18  Double  Great  Primer. 

9  Small  Pica.  19  Double  Paragon. 
10  Pica.  20  Canon. 


48  TYPOGRAPHY. 

REGULAR  BODIED  LETTER. 

THE  class  of  regular-bodied  letter  takes  in,,  viz.  Great  Primer, 
English,  Pica,  Long  Primer,  Brevier,  Nonpareil,  and  Pearl; 
and  those  which  go  before  them,  viz.  Canon,  Double  Great 
Primer,  Double  English,  Double  Pica,  &c.  principally  used  in 
jobs,  to  make  emphatical  words  or  lines  appear  conspicuous. 


IRREGULAR  BODIED  LETTER. 

THE  general  sorts  of  irregular-bodied  letters  are,  Paragon, 
Columbian,  Small  Pica,  Bourgeois, 'Minion,  and  Diamond, 
We  call  them  irregular,  because  they  are  of  intermediate  sizes 
to  letter  of  regular  bodies;  a  standard  for  which,  no  doubt,  was 
fixed  by  former  printers  and  founders. 

Among  the  irregular-bodied  sorts  of  letter  none  has  taken  so 
great  a  run  as  Small  Pica;  and  very  considerable  works  have 
been  done  in  that  character,  &c.  It  is  a  letter,  indeed,  which 
has  now  become  the  favorite  character  to  do  voluminous  works 
in;  partly,  because  it  is  a  round  and  legible  letter,  and  partly 
because  it  takes  in  considerably  more  matter  than  Pica. 


CHAPTER  II. 

A  FOUNJF  OF  LETTER,  AS  CONSIDERED  BY 
LETTER  FOUNDERS. 

A  COMPLETE  fount  of  letter  is  comprised  under  nine  heads,  in 
which  is  contained  the  following  sorts  *  — 

1.     Capitals. 
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ,RSTUVWX 


2.     Small  Capitals. 

ABCDEPGHIJKLMNOP^RSTU 
V  W  X  Y  Z  JE  (E  . 


3.    Lower  Case. 

abcdefghijklmnopq  rstuvwx 
y  z  ae  oe  &,. 

4.    Figures. 
1234567890. 

5.    Points,  etc. 

,s:.-n-'O[]*tt§|l. 

6.  Four  kinds  of  spaces. 

7.  Em  and  en  quadrats. 

8.  Two,  three,  and  four  em  quadrats. 

9.  Accents. 

These  are  the  ordinary  sorts  cast  to  a  fount  of  letter,  and 
which  the  founders  divide  into  long,  short,  ascending,  descend- 
ing, and  kerned  letters. 


50  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

LONG  LETTERS  are  those  which  take  up  the  whole  depth  of 
their  bodies,  and  are  both  ascending  and  descending,  such  in  the 
Roman,  as  Q,  and  j,  but  in  the  Italic,  /  is  a  long  lower-case 
letter. 


SHORT  LETTERS  are  all  such  as  have  their  face  cast  on  the 
middle  of  their  square  metal,  by  founders  called  shank,  as  a,  c, 
e,  m,  n,  o,  r,  s,  u,  v,  w,  x,  z,  all  which  will  admit  of  being 
bearded  above  and  below  their  face,  both  in  Roman  and  Italic. 


ASCENDING  LETTERS  are  all  the  Roman  and  Italic  capitals;  in 
the  lower  case,  b.  d,  f.  h.  i.  k.  1,  t. 


DESCENDING  LETTERS  are  g,  p,  q,  y,  in  Roman  and  Italic. 


KERNED  LETTERS  are  such  as  have  part  of  their  face  hanging 
over  either  one  or  both  sides  of  their  square  metal  or  shank.  In 
Roman,  f  and  j  are  the  only  kerned  letters;  but  in  Italic,  d,  g,j 
I,  y,  are  kerned  on  one  side,  and  /  on  both  sides  of  its  face. 

Casting  of  the  above  sorts  being  attended  with  considerable 
trouble,  accounts  for  the  founders  sending  so  few  of  them  in  a 
fount  of  letter,  when  in  fact  they  require  a  larger  number  than 
their  casting  bill  specifies ;  their  beaks  being  liable  to  accidents, 
especially  the  Roman  f,  when  at  the  end  of  a  line.  Kerned 
letters  of  the  I  tali",  especially/,  g,j,  and  y,  are  also  subject  to 
the  same  risk. 

Most  Italic  capitals  are  kerned  on  one  side  of  their  face;  but 
none  ought  to  be  more  attended  to  than  F,  T,  V,  W,  and  F, 
that  their  angles  may  not  fall  upon  an  ascending  letter  that  may 
stand  next  to  them. 

DOUBLE  LETTERS. 

DOUBLE  LETTERS  were  originally  formed  for  the  convenience 
of  one  kerned  letter  joining  with  another,  as  in  the  instance  of  a 
ff,  fT,  fi,  fi,  ft,  &c.,  as  their  beaks  would  inevitably  receive 
damage  unless  they  were  cast  in  one  piece. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  51 

Of  the  number  formerly  used  few  now  remain,  and  those 
permitted  only  through  necessity,  as  the  fi,  ff,  fl,  ffi,  and  ffl, 
The  introduction  of  the  round  s,  instead  of  the  long,  was  looked 
upon  as  a  valuable  improvement  in  the  art  of  printing,  and  we 
see  no  reason  why  the  beak  of  the  f  could  not  be  gracefully 
thrown  back  on  its  own  body,  and  thereby  save  the  founder  the 
inconvenience  of  kerning  it,  and  the  printer  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  kerned  and  double  letters. 


A  BILL  OF  PICA,  ROMAN  AND  ITALIC. 

THIS  part  of  our  work  might  be  extended  to  a  considerable 
length,  were  we  to  enter  into  the  minutiae  of  the  different  sorts 
requisite  to  form  a  complete  fount  for  every  language  printed 
in  the  Roman  character;  but  as  this  would  be  carrying  us 
beyond  our  limits,  we  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  improved 
scale  of  the  present  day,  calculated  for  our  own  language,  to 
which  imperfections  may  be  afterwards  cast,  so  as  to  render  the 
fount  serviceable  for  any  other.  The  Latin  and  French  require 
more  of  c,  i,  1,  m,  p,  q,  s,  u,  and  v,  than  the  English:  but 
until  such  sorts  become  really  necessary,  it  would  be  useless  to 
cast  them.  When  a  work  is  completed  for  which  such  extra 
sorts  were  required,  it  may  then  be  proper  to  prevent  their  re- 
maining inactive,  to  cast  up  to  them. 

It  is  well  known  in  practice  that  a  great  number  of  imperfec- 
tions are  always  wanted  in  a  printing  office;  and  from  the 
construction  of  language  it  appears  there  always  will  be  a  great 
number  of  particular  sorts  deficient,  whatever  the  proportions 
may  be  at  first.  In  proof  of  this  it  may  be  stated,  that  a  new 
fount  of  letter  shall  be  cast  for  the  purpose  of  printing  a  work; 
in  composing  this  letter  it  shall  be  found  that  there  is  a  great 
deficiency  of  some  letters,  and  a  superabundance  of  others;  to 
bring  the  whole  fount  into  use,  for  the  purpose  of  composing  as 
many  pages  as  possible,  the  deficient  sorts  are  cast,  till  the 
proportions  answer  to  each  other.  When  this  work  is  finished, 
another  author's  work  is  to  be  printed  with  the  same  letter :  the 
disproportion  is  again  felt;  those  which  at  the  first  were  deti- 


52  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

cient  are  now  superabundant,  and  those  which  were  abundant 
will  be  deficient;  so  that  the  master  printer,  to  keep  the  whole 
of  his  letter  in  use,  is  obliged  to  be  continually  casting  those 
deficiencies  and  thus  enlarging  his  founts. 

Formerly  a  fount  of  letter,  weighing  500  pounds,  was  consi- 
dered a  good  sized  fount ;  but  now,  so  much  jias  printing 
increased,  that  double  that  weight  would  scarcely  acquire  the 
appellation. 

Upon  this  subject,  we  find  that  a  fount  of  English,  at  Pans, 
which  formerly  set  up  about  twelve  sheets  of  a  Surgeon's  Case, 
in  quarto,  was  much  admired  on  account  of  its  extraordinary 
weight;  this  observation  drew  the  following  remark  from  an 
English  printer: 

"But,  how  much  would  their  admiration  be  heightened, 
were  they  to  see  here  several  founts  larger  than  that :  and  one 
in  particular  of  the  late  Mr.  Richardson's,  which  set  up  above 
thirty  sheets  in  folio,  of  77  lines  long,  and  45  m?s  wide,  before 
imperfections  were  cast  to  it,  which  must  be  very  considerable  in 
course,  and  have  enlarged  the  fount  to  several  more  sheets." 

Either  of  the  above  amazing  founts  (as  then  considered) 
would,  at  the  present  day,  be  thought  of  a  trifling  nature.  The 
Messrs.  Hansards,  proprietors  of  a  celebrated  English  printing 
house,  have  founts  of  English  and  Pica,  the  former  of  which, 
we  are  informed,  will  set  up  between  three  and  four  hundred 
sheets  of  foolscap  folio,  and  that  the  latter  will  extend  to  nearly 
six  hundred  sheets  of  the  above :  they  have  also  most  of  the 
other  founts  of  very  considerable  extent. 

Printers  divide  a  fount  of  letter  into  two  classes. 

1.  The  upper  case  >          . 

2.  The  lowercase^    soris' 

The  upper  case  sorts  are  capitals,  small  capital  letters  and 
references. 

The  lower  case  consists  of  small  letters,  double  letters,  figures, 
points,  spaces,  quadrats,  &c.  each  of  which  we  shall  treat  of 
under  distinct  heads. 

We  shall  now  give  what  is  reckoned  by  the  founders  a  regu- 
lar bill,  perfect  in  all  its  sorts. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.                             53 

A   FOUNT    OF    PICA   WEIGHING   800  Ibs. 

Italic  One-tenth  of  Roman. 

a          8500 

4500 

A           600 

A            300 

b          1600 

800 

B           400 

B            200 

c          3000 

600 

C           500 

c           250 

d          4400 

2000 

D           500 

D           250 

e        12000 

1000 

E           600 

E            300 

f          2500 

?            200 

P           400 

F            200 

g          1700 

!             150 

G          400 

G           200 

h         6400 

700 

H          400 

H           200 

i          8000 

(            300 

I            800 

i            400 

j            400 

[            150 

J            300 

j            150 

k           800 

*            100 

K          300 

K           150 

1          4000 

t        100 

L           500 

L           250 

m        3000 

t            100 

M          400 

M           200 

n          8000 

§            100 

N          400 

N           200 

o          8000 

100 

O          400 

o            200 

p          1700 

1             60 

P           400 

p            200 

q            500 

Q,          180 

0.             90 

r          6200 

1          1300 

R          400 

R           200 

s          8000 

2          1200 

S           500 

s            250 

t           9000 

3          1100 

T           650 

T            326 

u          3400 

4          1000 

U           300 

u            150 

v          1200 

5          1000 

V           300 

v            150 

w         2000 

6          1000 

W         400 

w           200 

x            400 

7          1000 

X          180 

x             90 

y          2000 

8          1000 

Y          300 

Y            150 

z            200 

9          1000 

Z             80 

z              40 

&          200 

0          1300 

M           40 

JE             20 

If           400 

(E           30 

(E                   15 

fi            500 

e           200 

fl            200 
ffl           100 
ffi           150 

a           200 
&           200 
£           200 

Spaces. 
Thick                      18000 
Middle                     12000 

33            100 

Thin                         8000 

oe             60 

All  other 

Hair                          3000 

accents  100 

em  Gtuads                 2500 

—          150 

each. 

en  auads                  5000 

90 
fiO 

Large  Quadrats  about 

SOlbs. 

54  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

CAPITALS. 

THE  use  of  capitals  has  been  considerably  abridged  of  late 
years;  and  the  antiquated  method  of  using  them  with  every 
substantive,,  and  sometimes  even  with  verbs  and  adverbs,  is  now 
discontinued.  They  are  considered,,  in  the  present  day,  as 
necessary  only  to  distinguish  proper  names  of  persons,  places, 
&c.  There  are,  however,  some  particular  works  in  which 
authors  deem  it  essential  to  mark  emphatical  words  with  a 
capital;  in  such  cases,  as  there  can  be  no  general  rule  to  guide 
the  compositor,  we  would  recommend  the  author  always  to 
send  his  copy  properly  prepared  in  this  particular,  to  the  printer, 
or  he  will  become  liable  to  the  charge  the  compositor  is  allowed 
to  make,  for  his  loss  of  time  in  following  his  alterations.  The 
method  of  denoting  a  capital,  or  words  of  capital  letters  in 
manuscript^  is  by  underscoring  it  with  three  distinct  lines. 

Capitals  of  whatever  body,  if  they  are  well  proportioned,  look 
well  in  titles,  inscriptions,  &c.,  but  it  requires  both  good  taste 
arid  judgment  in  the  compositor  to  display  them  to  advantage, 
either  by  spacing  them  or  not,  as  the  length  of  the  line  may 
require. 


SMALL  CAPITALS. 

SMALL  CAPITALS  are  in  general  only  cast  to  Roman  founts,  but 
in  England  often  to  Italic,  and  are  used  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  a  stronger  emphasis  to  a  word  than  can  be  conveyed  to 
it  by  its  being  in  Italic.  They  are  likewise  used  for  running 
heads,  heads  of  chapters,  &c.  instead  of  Italic,  according  to  the 
fancy  of  the  printer.  The  first  word  of  every  section  or  chapter 
is  generally  put  in  small  capitals,  after  a  small  neat  two  line 
letter.  They  are  likewise  of  considerable  service  in  the  display 
of  a  title  page,  particularly  in  setting  the  catch  lines. 

The  small  capitals  c,  o,  s,  v,  w,  x,  z,  so  closely  resemble  the 
same  letters  in  the  lower  case,  as  to  require  particular  care  to 
prevent  their  mixing,  as  the  difference  can  only  be  ascertained 
by  their  being  cast  thicker  than  the  others.  As  a  distingaishing 
feature,  however,  the  nick  might  be  cast  somewhat  higher  on 
the  upper  case  sorts. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  55 

In  manuscript,,  small  capitals  are  denoted  by  having  two  lines 
drawn  under  them. 


ACCENTED  LETTERS. 

THOSE  which   are   called  accented  by  printers,  are  the   five 

vowels,  marked  either  with  an 

Acute      -  -  -  a  e  i  6  u 

Grave      -  -  -  a  e  i  6  u 

Circumflex  -  -  a  e  i  6  u 

Diuresis  -  -  a  e  i*  6  ii 

Long       -  -  -  aeiou 

Short       -  -  -  aeiou 

REFERENCES. 

REFERENCES  are  all  such  marks  and  signs  as  are  used  in 
matter  which  has  either  side  or  bottom  notes,  and  serve  to  direct 
the  reader  to  the  observations  which  are  made  upon  such  pas- 
sages of  the  text  as  are  distinguished  by  them,  and  demand  a 
reference  of  the  same  likeness  to  be  put  to  the  notes,  by  which 
the  matter  is  illustrated,  or  otherwise  taken  notice  of. 

References  which  are  used  in  works  with  notes  to  them,  are 
variously  represented,  though  oftener  by  letters  than  other 
characters.  Accordingly  some  put  common  letters  between 
parenthesis ;  thus  (a,)  (b,)  (c,)  &c.  Others  again,  choose  to  see 
them  between  brackets,  as  [a,]  [/>,]  [c,]  and  so  on  to  the  end  of 
the  alphabet;  instead  of  these,  some  begin  the  notes  of  every 
page  with  (a,)  in  which  they  are  as  right  as  the  former;  and 
have  this  advantage  besides,  that  the  order  of  references  is  not 
so  liable  to  be  interrupted  as  by  going  through  a  whole  alphabet. 
We  would  recommend,  however,  literal  references  to  begin 
with  every  even  page,  if  it  has  notes;  and  to  carry  them  no 
further  than  to  the  last  note  in  the  opposite  uneven  page;  by 
which  means  the  order  of  the  references  would  appear  at  one 
view,  and  any  irregularity  in  them  rectified  without  much 
trouble. 


56  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

Instead  of  letters,  whether  capital  or  lower-case,  figures  are 
used  in  the  same  manner,  and  also  with  equal  propriety ;  for  the 
one  as  well  as  the  other  are  of  like  signification,  when  used  for 
the  same  purpose:  but  the  references  which  look  the  neatest, 
besides  being  the  most  proper,  are  superior  letters,  or  else 
superior  figures;  for  both  were  originally  contrived  and  intended 
to  be  employed  in  matter  that  is  explained  by  notes,  whether  by 
way  of  annotations,  quotations,  citations,  or  otherwise.  Never- 
tneless,  we  observe  that  superior  letters  are  not  used  upon 
every  occasion,  but  chiefly  in  large  and  lasting  works,  which 
have  sometimes  more  than  one  sort  of  notes,  and  therefore 
require  different  references;  in  which  case  not  only  superior 
letters,  but  also  such  marks  are  used  as  never  were  designed  to 
serve  for  references.  But,  to  abide  by  the  title  of  this  article, 
what  are  called  references  by  printers  are  the  following : 

Asterisk  *      I      Double  Dagger  J      I      Parallel        | 
Dagger    f  Section  §  Paragraph  If 

The  above  are  the  names  and  figures  which  founders  reckon 
among  the  points,  and  are  denominated  references  by  printers ; 
these  characters  were  designed  to  serve  for  other  purposes  than 
those  to  which  they  have  been  applied,  as  will  appear  from 
their  respective  functions. 

1.  The  Asterisk  is  the  chief  of  the  references,  and  presents 
itself  most  readily  to  the  eye,  on  account  of  having  its  figure  on 
the  top,  and  leaving  a  blank  below,  which  makes  it  a  superior. 

In  Roman  church-books,  the  Asterisk  divides  each  verse  of  a 
psalm  into  two  parts,  and  marks  where  the  responses  begin, 
which  in  our  Common  Prayer  Books  is  done  by  placing  a  colon 
between  the  two  parts  of  each  verse. 

They  are  sometimes  used  to  supply  the  name  of  a  person 
that  chooses  to  pass  anonymous.  They  also  denote  an  omis- 
sion, or  an  hiatus,  by  loss  of  original  copy;  in  which  case  the 
number  of  asterisks  are  multiplied  according  to  the  largeness  of 
the  chasm;  and  not  only  whole  lines,  but  frequently  whole 
pages,  are  left  blank,  and  marked  with  lines  of  stars. 

In  satirising  persons  in  pamphlets  and  public  papers,  the 
asterisk  is  of  great  service;  for  it  is  but  putting  the  first  letter  of 
a  person's  name,  with  some  asterisks  after  it,  and  ill-natured 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  57 

people  think  they  may  characterise,  and  even  libel  their  betters 
without  restriction.  Metal  rules  or  dashes,  also  serve  for  the 
above  purposes  as  well  as  Asterisks. 

2.  The  Dagger,  originally  termed  the  Obelisk,  or  Long  Cross, 
is  frequently  used  in  Roman  Catholic  church-books,  prayers  ol 
exorcism,  at  the  benediction  of  bread,  water,  and  fruit,  and  upon 
other  occasions,  where  the  priest  is  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross ; 
but  it  must  be  observed,  that  the  long  cross  is  not  used  in  books 
of  the  said  kind,  unless  for  want  of  square  crosses,  (»£s)  which 
are  the  proper  symbols  for  the  before-mentioned  purposes;  and 
are  used  besides  in  the  Pope's  briefs,  and  in  mandates  of  arch- 
bishops and  bishops  who  put  it  immediately  before  the  signature 
of  their  names.     But  the  square  cross  is  not  reckoned  among 
the  references  of  which  we  are  speaking;  whereas,  the  long 
cross  answers  several  purposes;  for  besides  serving  instead  of  a 
square  cross,  it  also  answers  for  a  signature  to  matter  that  has 
been  either  omitted,  or  else  added,  and  which  is  intercalated 
after  the  work  is  gone  beyond  the  proper  place  for  it.     But  the 
chief  use  which  is  made  of  the  dagger,  is  by  way  of  reference, 
where  it  serves  in  a  double  capacity,  viz.  the  right  way,  and 
inverted. 

3.  The  Double  Dagger  is  a  mark  crowded  in  to  make  one  of 
the  improper  references. 

4.  The  Parallel  is  another  sign  which  serves  for  a  reference, 
and  is  fit  to  be  used  either  for  side  or  bottom  notes. 

5.  The  sign  which  implies  the  word  Section,  is  a  sort  likewise 
seldom  employed,  because  in  a  work  which  is   divided  into 
chapters,  articles,  paragraphs,  sections,  or  any  other  parts,  they 
are  commonly  put  in  lines  by  themselves,  either  in  large  capitals, 
small  capitals,  or  italic,  according  to  the  size  of  the  work.     But 
tne  sign  of  section  is  sometimes  used  in  Latin  notes,  and  parti- 
cularly such  as  are  collected  from  foreign  books,  which  generally 
abound  with  citations,  because   the   introduction  induces  the 
reader  to  account  his  author  very  learned. 

6.  The  Paragraph  is  a  mark  which  formerly  was  prefixed  to 
such  matter  as  authors  designed  to  distinguish  from  the  mean 
contents  of  their  works ;  and  which  was  to  give  the  reader  an 
item  of  some  particular  subject.     At  present,  paragraphs  are 


58  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

seen  only  in.  Bibles,  where  they  show  the  parts  into  which  a 
chapter  is  divided,  and  where  its  contents  change.  In  common 
Prayer  Books,  paragraphs  are  put  before  the  matter  that  directs 
the  order  of  the  Service,  and  which  is  called  the  Rubric: 
because  those  lines  were  formerly  printed  in  red.  Otherwise  it 
is  a  useless  sort,  and  unfit  to  serve  for  a  reference,  as  long  as 
there  are  others  which  have  not  that  antique  appearance. 

Thus  we  have  shown,  that  the  symbols  which  are  used  as 
references,  were  designed  for  quite  different  purposes.  We  are 
therefore  of  opinion,  that  it  would  not  have  been  one  of  the  least 
improvements,  had  some  other  marks  been  devised  which  should 
have  appeared  in  a  more  becoming  shape  than  the  above 
references,  and  more  perspicuous  than  superiors  of  the  least 
size. 


LOWER-CASE  SORTS. 

HAVING  already  considered  the  lower  case  alphabet,  we  shall 
merely  notice  those  sorts  which  have  not  been  already  treated 
on.  Those  termed  lower  case-sorts,  are,  the  small  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  double  letters,  points,  the  bracket  and  parenthesis, 
spaces  and  quadrats.  Of  these  i,  v,  x,  1,  c,  are  numeral  letters, 
and  are  generally  used  in  notes;  the  d,  or  m,  seldom  appear  in 
lower-case  numerals,  though  their  power  is  not  inferior  in 
calculation  to  capitals,  as  they  are  governed  by  the  same  rules. 


POINTS. 

THEY  consist  of  a  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  period  or  full-point, 
note  of  interrogation  and  note  of  admiration. 

Points  are  not  of  equal  antiquity  with  printing,  though,  not 
long  after  its  invention,  the  necessity  of  introducing  stops  or 
pauses  in  sentences,  for  the  guidance  of  the  reader,  brought 
forward  the  colon  and  full-point,  the  two  first  invented.  In 
process  of  time,  the  comma  was  added  to  the  infant  punctuation, 
which  then  had  no  other  figure  than  a  perpendicular  line, 
proportionable  to  the  body  of  the  letter;  these  three  points  were 
the  only  ones  used  till  the  close  pJT  the  fifteen^  ceajury,.  when 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  59 

Aldus  Manutius,  a  man  eminent  for  the  restoration  of  learning, 
among  other  improvements  in  the  art  of  printing,  corrected  and 
enlarged  the  punctuation,  by  giving  a  better  shape  to  the  comma, 
adding  the  semicolon,  and  assigning  to  the  former  points  a  more 
proper  place  5  the  comma  denoting  the  smaller  pause,  the  semi- 
colon next,  then  the  colon,  and  the  full-point  terminating  the 
sentence.  The  notes  of  interrogation  and  admiration  were  not 
introduced  till  many  years  after. 

Perhaps  there  never  existed  on  any  subject,  among  men  of 
learning,  a  greater  difference  of  opinion  than  on  the  true  mode 
of  punctuation,  and  scarcely  can  any  two  people  agree  in  the 
same  method ;  some  making  the  pause  of  a  semicolon  where  the 
sense  will  only  bear  a  comma;  some  contending  for  what  is 
termed  stiff  pointing,  and  others  altogether  the  reverse. 

The  want  of  an  established  rule  in  this  particular  is  much  to 
be  regretted.  The  loss  of  time  to  a  compositor,  occasioned, 
often  through  whim  or  caprice,  in  altering  points  unnecessarily, 
is  one  of  the  greatest  hardships  he  has  to  complain  of  in  the 
progress  of  his  profession. 

Scarcely  nine  works  out  of  ten  are  sent  properly  prepared  to 
the  press ;  either  the  writing  is  illegible,  the  spelling  incorrect, 
or  the  punctuation  defective.  The  compositor  has  often  to  read 
sentences  of  his  copy  more  than  once  before  he  can  ascertain 
what  he  conceives  the  meaning  of  the  author,  that  he  may  not 
deviate  from  him  in  the  punctuation;  this  retards  him  consi- 
derably. But  here  it  does  not  end — he,  and  the  corrector  of  the 
press,  though,  perhaps,  both  intelligent  and  judicious  men, 
differ  in  that  in  which  few  are  found  to  agree,  and  the  compo- 
sitor has  to  follow  either  his  whim  or  better  opinion.  The  proof 
goes  to  the  author — he  dissents  from  them  both,  and  makes 
those  alterations  in  print,  which  ought  to  have  rendered  his 
manuscript  copy  correct. 

The  late  Dr.  Hunter,  in  reviewing  a  work,  had  occasion  to 
censure  it  for  its  improper  punctuation.  He  advises  authors  to 
leave  the  pointing  entirely  to  the  printers,  as  from  their  constant 
practice  they  must  have  acquired  a  uniform  mode  of  punctua- 
tion* We  are  decidedly  of  this  opinion ;  for  unless  the  author 
will  take  the  responsibility  of  the  pointing  entirely  on  himself,  it 

6 


CO  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

will  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  compositor,  and  attended  with 
less  loss  of  time,  not  to  meet  with  a  single  point  in  his  copy, 
unless  to  terminate  a  sentence,  than  to  have  his  mind  confused 
by  commas  and  semicolons  placed  indiscriminately,  in  the  hurry 
of  writing,  without  any  regard  to  propriety.  The  author  may 
reserve  to  himself  his  particular  mode  of  punctuation,  by 
directing  the  printer  to  point  his  work  either  loosely  or  not,  and 
still  have  the  opportunity  of  detecting  in  his  proofs  whether  a 
misplaced  point  injures  his  sentence.  The  advantage  resulting 
from  this  method  would  ensure  uniformity  to  the  work,  and 
remove  in  part  from  the  compositor  a  burthen  which  has 
created  no  small  degree  of  contention. 

Having  considered  it  our  duty  to  enter  thus  fully  on  a  subject 
that  so  materially  concerns  the  compositor,  we  will  now  proceed 
to  the  points  themselves. 

The  comma,  which  is  considered  the  first,  from  its  requiring 
the  shortest  pause,  its  time  being  till  you  can  reckon  one,  is 
more  frequently  used  and  misapplied  than  any  of  the  other 
points.  Its  unnecessary  introduction  often  involves  the  reader 
in  perplexity ;  and  its  omission  blends  sentences  that  should  be 
kept  distinct — and  in  unskilful  hands  may  pervert  the  meaning 
of  the  author,  and  render  it  ridiculous.  The  most  acceptable 
mode  seems  to  be  what  is  termed  easy  pointing,  which  certainly 
has  the  advantage  of  not  confusing  the  reader.  All  subjects, 
however,  should  not  be  pointed  alike;  as  familiar  discourses,  or 
historical  and  narrative  subjects,  do  not  require  so  many  points 
as  explanatory  and  Law  matter. 

Commas  are  used  to  denote  extracts  or  quotations  from  other 
works,  in  dialogue  matter,  or  any  passages  or  expressions  not 
original,  by  inverting  two  of  them,  and  placing  them  before  the 
passages  quoted,  and  closing  such  passage  with  two  apos- 
trophes. These  are  termed  inverted  commas;  and  when  used, 
a  thin  space  is  sufficient  to  keep  them  free  from  the  matter. 
The  method  of  running  them  down  the  sides  to  the  end  of  the 
quotation,  has  been  found  inconvenient,  particularly  where  a 
quotation  occurs  within  a  quotation,  or  a  speech  within  a 
speech;  the  proper  method  of  distinguishing  which,  is  by 
placing  a  single  inverted  comma,  before  such  extra  quotation, 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  61 

and  to  be  concluded  with  a  single  apostrophe:  or  should  both 
quotations  close  together,  put  three  apostrophes,  observing  after 
ihe  first  to  place  a  thin  space. 

Inverted  commas  owe  their  origin  to  Mons.  Guillemet,  a 
Frenchman,  who,  it  may  be  supposed,  was  no  friend  to  Italic, 
they  being  intended  to  supersede  the  use  of  that  letter.  As  an 
acknowledgment  for  this  improvement,  his  countrymen  call 
them  after  his  name. 

A  single  comma  inverted  is  used  as  an  abbreviation  to  the 
word  Mac,  as  in  the  instance  of  M'Gowen. 

The  semicolon  is  allowed  double  the  space  of  time  for  its 
pause  to  the  comma,  and  may  be  considered  an  important  point 
of  punctuation;  ii  enforces  what  has  been  illustrated  by  the 
comma,  and  allows  the  reader  an  opportunity  to  acquire  a 
perfect  view  of  the  sentence,  before  it  is  terminated  by  the  full- 
point. 

The  colon,  whose  allowed  time  is  till  the  reader  can  count 
three,  has  been  superseded  in  almost  every  instance,  either  by 
the  semicolon,  ellipsis  line  or  dash. 

The  period  or  full-point  is  used  to  terminate  a  sentence,  and 
its  pause  is  double  the  time  allowed  to  the  semicolon.  It  is  also 
used  in  abbreviations,  but  then  loses  its  effect  as  a  full  stop  in 
the  punctuation,  unless  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.  Many  works 
have  recently  been  printed,  in  which  this  point  has  been  entirely 
dispensed  with  as  an  abbreviation,  as  in  Mr  Dr  &c._,  a  very 
convenient,  if  not  an  elegant  mode. 

Full-points  are  sometimes  used  as  leaders  in  tables  of  contents, 
figure- work,  &c.,  but  dotted  rules  or  leaders  are  much  better  for 
this  purpose,  from  their  uniform  appearance,  as  they  not  only 
supply  the  place  of  full-points  and  quadrats,  but  save  considera- 
ble time  in  the  composition. 

The  sign  of  interrogation  needs  not  to  be  explained,  for  the 
very  appellation  tells  us,  that  it  is  a  mark  which  is  used  to  show 
where  a  question  is  proposed,  that  gives  room  for,  or  demands, 
an  answer. 

It  is  not  only  proper,  but  also  requisite,  that  every  interroga- 
tion or  question  should  begin  with  a  large  letter,  whether 
capitals  are  used  in  the  matter,  or  not;  according  to  the  method 


62  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

wliich  is  observed  in  OUT  Bibles,  where.,  as  well  interrogatives 
as  responses,  besides  the  beginning  of  sayings,  allocutions,  &,c. 
are  intimated  by  a  large  capital  letter.  . 

The  sign  of  admiration,  or  exclamation,  likewise  explains 
itself  by  its  name,  and  claims  a  place  where  surprise,  astonish- 
ment, rapture,  and  the  like  sudden  emotions  of  the  mind  are 
expressed,  whether  upon  lamenting  or  rejoicing  occasions. 

The  sign  of  exclamation  is  put  after  the  particles  Ah!  Alas! 
O !  &c.,  though  the  last  is  not  always  of  that  force  to  be  attended 
by  the  exclamatory  symbol;  but  is  softened  by  a  comma,  to 
enforce  what  follows,  and  to  make  the  admiration  more  complete. 

The  admirative  part  of  a  paragraph,  as  well  as  of  the  inter- 
rogatory, is  always  to  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

All  the  points,  except  the  comma  and  the  full-stop,  should 
have  a  hair  space  placed  between  them  and  the  matter,  to  dis- 
tinguish them;  the  comma  and  full-point  not  lining  with  the 
depth  of  the  face  of  the  letter,  do  not  require  any  space  to  bear 
them  off. 

Of  late  years,  some  founders  cast  their  semicolons,  colons, 
&,c.  of  sufficient  thickness  to  dispense  with  the  hair  space 
between  them  and  the  letter,  a  mode  to  which  we  can  see  no 
objection,  but  on  the  contrary  would  rather  commend. 

The  m  dash,  though  it  cannot  be  denominated  a  point,  is 
frequently  used  in  peculiar  works,  sometimes  as  a  substitute  for 
the  comma,  at  others  for  the  colon,  and  is  found  particularly 
serviceable  in  rhapsodical  writing,  where  half  sentences  fre- 
quently occur. 


HYPHEN,  OR  DIVISION. 

To  divide  words  or  syllables  with  propriety,  is  an  important 
Dart  of  a  compositor's  business.  It  will  exercise  his  judgment, 
and  demands  particular  attention,  as  authors  must  leave  the  use 
of  the  hyphen  to  the  discretion  of  the  printer. 

The  difficulty  that  formerly  existed  as  to  the  proper  method  of 
dividing  syllables,  arose  from  the  controversies  in  which  authors 
were  continually  engaged  on  the  subject  of  orthography. — 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  63 

Without  being  able  lo  establish  a  criterion,  each  arrogated  to 
himself  the  adoption  of  his  own  particular  mode,  to  the  subver- 
sion of  uniformity  and  propriety. 

The  Dictionaries  of  Walker  and  Johnson  are  looked  up  to  as 
the  highest  authorities,  and  the  labor  of  these  great  men  appears 
to  have  been  crowned  with  complete  success.  It  has  suenced 
those  pedantic  clamors  and  divided  opinions,  which  distracted 
the  attention  of  the  compositor,  and  he  is  now  able  to  solve  any 
difficulty,  by  a  reference  to  those  excellent  standards  of  English 
orthography. 

Authors  of  the  present  day  seldom  interfere  with  what  is  now 
deemed  the  province  of  the  printer:  they  will  generally  allow 
him,  from  his  practice,  to  be  a  pretty  competent  judge  of  ortho- 
graphy, and  therefore  do  not  object  to  his  mode  of  spelling, 
though  it  may  vary  from  their  own.  To  the  compositor  this  is 
an  advantage  of  considerable  importance,  as  it  allows  him  to 
observe  a  system  in  his  spelling,  and  enables  him  at  the  same 
time,  to  acquire  the  proper  use  of  the  division,  in  which  he 
should  be  careful  not  to  suffer  a  syllable  of  a  single  letter  to  be 
put  at  the  end  of  a  line,  as  a-bide,  enormous,  o-bedienl,  &c. 
except  in  marginal  notes,  which,  from  their  narrow  measure, 
cannot  be  governed  by  this  rule.  The  terminating  syllable  of  a 
word  should  not  be  allowed  to  begin  a  line,  as  ed,  ly,  &,c.  the 
hyphen  being  the  thickness  of  one  of  the  letters,  the  measure 
must,  therefore,  be  narrow  indeed,  or  the  line  very  closely 
spaced,  that  will  not  admit  the  other.  A  compositor,  who 
studies  propriety  and  neatness  in  his  work,  will  not  suffer  an 
unnecessary  division,  even  in  a  narrow  measure,  if  he  can  avoid 
it  by  the  trouble  of  over-running  two  or  three  lines  of  his  matter. 

In  large  type  and  narrow  measures,  the  use  of  the  division 
may  admit  of  an  excuse:  but,  in  that  case,  care  should  be  taken 
that  hyphens  do  not  follow  each  other.  In  small  type  and  wide 
measures,  the  hyphen  may  generally  be  dispensed  with,  either 
by  driving  out  or  getting  in  the  word,  without  the  least 
infringement  on  the  regularity  of  the  spacing.  The  hanit  once 
acquired  of  attending  to  this  essential  point,  the  compositor 
would  find  his  advantage  in  the  preference  given  to  his  work, 
and  the  respect  attached  to  his  character  from  his  being  con- 


64  TYPOGRAPHY 

sidered  a  competent  and  careful  master  of  his  business.  The 
appearance  of  many  divisions  down  the  side  of  a  page,  and 
irregular  spacing,  are  the  two  greatest  defects  in  composition. 

It  is  proper,  if  possible,  to  keep  the  derivative  or  radical  word 
entire  and  undivided;  as  occur-rence,  gentle-man,  respecl-ful,  &c. 
Some  printers  have  adopted  the  mode  of  dividing  on  the  vowel, 
which  answers  very  well  in  some  cases,  but  will  by  no  means 
answer  as  a  general  rule. 

The  hyphen,  or  division,  is  likewise  used  to  join  two  or  three 
words  together,  which  are  termed  compounds,  and  consist 
frequently  of  two  substantives,  as  bird-cage,  love-letter,  &c.; 
likewise  what  are  termed  compound  adjectives,  as  well-built 
house,  handsome-faced  child,  &c.  But  compounds  are  sometimes 
made  of  words  that  were  never  intended  for  such;  therefore,  to 
acquire  a  competent  knowledge  of  them  does  not  depend  upon 
fancy,  but  exercises  the  judgment  in  discovering  the  rise  and 
fall  of  the  tone,  which  is  an  adjunct:  and  whether  that  and  the 
preceding  appellative  may  not  be  joined  into  one  word,  rather 
than  make  a  compound  of  it. 

The  prepositions  after,  before,  over,  Sac.  are  often  connected 
with  other  words,  but  do  not  always  make  a  proper  compound ; 
thus,  before-mentioned  is  a  compound  when  it  precedes  a  sub- 
stantive, as,  in  the  before-mentioned  place;  but  when  it  comes 
after  a  noun,  as  in  the  place  before  mentioned,  it  should  be  two 
distinct  words. 

Hyphens  are  sometimes  used  in  table-work,  indexes,  or  con- 
tents; but,  like  the  full-point,  they  are  now  generally  superseded 
by  leaders  or  dotted  rules. 

Hyphens  should  not  be  cast  of  too  thick  a  body;  their  princi- 
pal use  is  in  justifying  and  correcting,  therefore  they  cannot 
be  too  thin  to  be  serviceable;  they  do  not  require  a  very  bold 
stroke,  except  for  spelling-books,  for  which  they  are  generally 
cast  on  purpose. 


PARENTHESIS  AND  BRACKET. 

THE  use  of  the  parenthesis  is  to  enclose  such  words  or  sentences 
of  a  period  as  make  no  part  of  the  subject,  yet  at  the  same  time 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  65 

strengthen  the  argument;  which,  however,,  would  read  smoothly 
on,,  were  the  enclosed  matter  taken  away. 

Parentheses  are  not  now  so  generally  used  as  formerly; 
authors  place  their  intercalations  between  commas,  which  make 
them  equally  as  intelligible  as  though  they  were  inclosed  between 
parentheses,  and  look  much  neater  in  print;  but  where  paren- 
theses are  used,  should  a  point  be  requisite  to  mark  the  sentence, 
it  is  placed  after  the  parenthesis,  the  intercalation  not  being 
reckoned  any  part  of  that  sentence;  as,  fop  instance,  My  Lord 
(said  I),  I  will  tell  your  Lordship,  &c. 

Brackets  are  so  seldom,  made  use  of  now,  that  they  require 
little  notice;  botlj  parentheses  and  brackets  were  formerly  used 
to  inclose  folios,  &c. ;  but  the  modern  method  of  putting  folios  in 
figures  unattended,  leaves  the  bracket  scarce  a  duty  to  perform. 


APOSTROPHE. 

THE  apostrophe  is  called  a  sign  of  abbreviation,  its  appearance 
often  ejecting  some  letter  or  letters  from  the  word  to  which  it  is 
attached,  particularly  in  poetry,  where  it  often  contracts  two 
syllables  into  one,  to  give  a  verse  its  proper  measure;  to  this  the 
vowel  e  yields  oftener  than  any  other  letter,  as  allcdg'd,  cluing' d, 
Sic.  Sometimes  it  cuts  off  a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of  words, 
as 'hate, 'scape, 'squire,  &c.;  sometimes  a  syllable,  as  'prentice; 
but  these,  and  many  other  abbreviations,  are  common  -only  in 
poetical  works,  and  are  under  the  arbitration  of  the  author,  who 
best  knows  where  such  contractions  serve  his  purpose.  x 

The  monosyllables  tho'  an'd  thro'  are  sometimes  shortened, 
but  without  any  appearance  of  propriety  to  justify  the  curtail- 
ment, as  they  retain  the  same  sound,  and  therefore  the  use  of 
the  apostrophe  as  an  abbreviation  cannot  in  the  slightest  degree 
assist  the  versification. 

The  genitive  case  of  the  singular  number  is  generally  known 
by  having  's  for  its  termination. 

All  quotations,  which  are  denoted  by  beginning  with  inverted 
commas,  are  closed  with  apostrophes.  There  is  no  space 
required  between  the  apostrophe  arid  the  matter. 


66  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

QUADRATS. 

AN  m  quadrat  is  the  square  of  the  letter  to  whatever  fount  it 
may  belong;  an  n  quadrat  is  half  that  size.  In  casting  m  and 
n  quadrats,  the  utmost  exactness  is  necessary;  they  also  require 
particular  care  in  dressing,  as  the  most  trifling  variation  will 
instantly  be  discovered,  when  ranged  in  figure-work,  for  which 
purpose  they  are  much  used,  and  unless  true  in  their  justifica- 
tion, the  arrangement  is  confused  to  such  a  degree,  that  all  the 
pains  and  ingenuity*of  a  compositor  cannot  rectify  it.  The 
same  observation  will  hold  good  with  respect  to  figures. 

M  quadrats  mostly  begin  paragraphs,  by  an  indention  of  the 
first  line;  but  of  late  years  some  printers  prefer  using  an  m  and 
n  for  narrow  measures.,  and  two,  three,  or  even  four  m's  for 
wide  measures,,  which  certainly  must  be  acknowledged  to  be  an 
improvement.  An  m  quadrat  is  likewise  the  proper  space  after 
a  full-point,  when  it  terminates  a  sentence  in  a  paragraph. 

N  quadrats  are  generally  used  after  the  semicolon,  colon,  &c., 
and  sometimes  after  a  curved  letter;  they  are  also  exceedingly 
useful  in  spacing. 

Two,  three,  and  four  m  quadrats  are  likewise  cast  for  break 
and  white  lines,  but  particularly  for  poetry,  on  which  account 
it  is  essentially  necessary  that  they  be  cast  to  the  exact  depth 
of  the  letter,  otherwise  the  matter  will  stand  uneven  where  a 
number  of  them  come  together. 

The  inconvenience  arising  from  founts  of  the  same  body  not 
agreeing  in  depth,  is  great,  where  the  quadrats,  through  neces- 
sity, are  sometimes  mixed.  It  is  a  serious  evil,  and  much  to  be 
deplored,  that  some  method  cannot  be  adopted  to  check  it;  as  a 
particular  work  will  sometimes  require  more  quadrats  than 
were  cast  to  the  letter;  recourse  must  then  be  had  to  the  founder, 
though  there  may  be  other  founts  in  the  office  of  the  same  body. 

Reglets  of  the  same  body  as  the  letter  of  the  work,  are  some- 
times  used  for  white  lines,  instead  of  quadrats;  but,  from  their 
being  often  wet,  they  are  apt  to  swell,  and  of  course  cannot  be 
depended  on,  and  are  only  fit  to  be  used  in  jobs,  &c.  where 
large  type  is  employed;  it  would  therefore  be  better  for  book- 
work,  to  use  leads,  which  are  cast  from  four,  six,  and  eight, 
&c.  to  a  Pica,  and  from  four  m's  to  any  length  required. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  67 

SPACES. 

THE  use  of  spaces  is  to  separate  one  word  from  another,  so  that 
the  reading  may  appear  easy  and  distinct.  To  enable  the  com- 
positor to  space  even,  and  to  justify  with  nicety,,  they  are  cast 
to  various  thicknesses. 

Five  to  an  m — or  five  thin  spaces;  four  to  an  m — or  four 
middle  spaces;  three  to  an  m — or  three  thick  spaces;  and  two 
to  an  m — or  two  n  quadrats,  which  may  with  propriety  be 
reckoned  among  the  number  of  spaces.  Besides  these,  there 
are  what  are  called  hair  spaces,  cast  remarkably  thin,  and  found 
particularly  useful  in  justifying  lines  and  assisting  uniformity 
in  spacing. 


NUMERAL  LETTERS. 

EVERY  letter  in  the  alphabet  was  used  to  denote  some  number 
by  the  Greeks  and  Orientals,  and  each  letter  denoted  a  less  or 
greater  number,  as  it  was  nearer  or  more  remote  from  the  first 
letter  in  their  alphabetical  order;  and  no  letter,  which  in  the 
order  of  the  alphabet  stands  after  another,  ever  denoted  a 
number  less  than  the  letter  that  stands  before  it.  If  the  Romans, 
who  derived  their  letters  originally  from  the  Greeks,  had  derived 
also  their  numeration  by  letters,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree 
probable,  that  these  particulars  would  have  been  the  same  in 
both;  but  as  not  one  third  of  the  Roman  letters  are  numerals,  so 
neither  is  the  numeral  value  of  those  that  are  so,  more  or  less, 
according  to  their  place  in  alphabetical  order;  because  D  and  C, 
which  stand  among  the  first  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  M  and 
L,  whose  station  is  in  the  centre,  are  of  much  greater  numeral 
value  than  X  and  V  which  are  near  the  end. 

But  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  Romans  used  M  to  denote 
1000,  because  it  is  the  first  letter  of  Mille,  which  is  Latin  for 
1000;  and  C  to  denote  100,  it  being  the  first  letter  of  Centum, 
the  Latin  term  for  100.  Some  also  suppose,  that  D  being 
formed  by  dividing  the  old  M  in  the  middle,  was  therefore 
appointed  to  stand  for  500,  that  is,  half  as  much  as  tne  M  stood 
for  when  it  was  whole;  and  that  L  being  half  a  C,  was,  for  the 
same  reason,  used  to  denominate  50.  But  upon  what  just 


68  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

principle  can  any  person  imagine,  that  1000  and  100  were  the 
numbers  which  letters  were  first  used  to  express?  And  what 
cause  can  be  assigned  why  D,  the  first  letter  in  the  Latin  word 
Decem,  10,  should  not  rather  have  been  chosen  for  500,  because 
it  had  a  rude  resemblance  to  half  an  M?  But  if  these  questions 
could  be  satisfactorily  answered,  there  are  other  numerical 
letters  which  have  never  yet  been  accounted  for.  We  therefore 
think  these  considerations  render  it  probable,  that  the  Romans 
did  not,  in  their  original  intention,  use  letters  to  express 
numbers  at  all;  the  most  natural  account  of  the  matter  appears 
to  be  this — 

The  Romans  probably  put  down  a  single  stroke  I,  for  one,  as 
is  still  the  practice  of  those  who  score  on  a  slate,  or  with  chalk; 
this  stroke  they  doubled,  trebled,  and  quadrupled,  to  express 
two,  three,  and  four,  thus,  II,  III,  IIII.  So  far  they  could 
easily  number  the  minums  or  strokes  with  a  glance  of  the  eye; 
but  they  found,  that  if  more  were  added,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  number  the  strokes  one  by  one ;  for  this  reason,  when  they 
came  to  five,  they  expressed  it  by  joining  two  strokes  together 
in  an  acute  angle,  thus  V,  which  will  appear  the  more  probable, 
if  it  be  considered  that  the  progression  of  the  Roman  numbers  is 
from  five  to  five,  that  is,  from  the  fingers  of  one  hand  to  the 
fingers  of  the  other.  Ovid  has  touched  upon  the  original  of  this 
in  his  Festorum,  lib.  iii.  and  Vitruv.  lib.  iii.  c.  1.  has  made  the 
same  remark. 

After  they  had  made  this  acute  angle  V,  for  five,  they  then 
added  single  strokes  to  the  number  of  four,  thus  VI,  VII,  VIII, 
VIIII,  and  then,  as  the  minums  could  not  be  further  multiplied 
without  confusion,  they  doubled  their  acute  angle  by  prolonging 
the  two  lines  beyond  their  intersection,  thus  X,  to  denote  two 
fives,  or  ten.  After  they  had  doubled,  trebled,  and  quadrupled 
this  double  acute  angle,  thus  XX,  XXX,  XXXX,  they  then, 
for  the  same  reason  which  induced  them  to  make  a  single  angle 
first,  and  then  to  double  it,  joined  two  single  strokes  in  another 
form,  and  instead  of  an  acute  angle,  made  a  right  angle,  L,  to 
denote  fifty.  When  this  was  doubled,  they  then  doubled  the 
right  angve,  thus,  C,  to  denote  one  hundred,  and  having  num- 
bered this  double  right  angle  four  times,  thus  CC,  CCC, 


TYPOGRAPHY.   "  69 

LULL,  when  they  came  lo  the  fifth  number,  as  before,  they 
reverted  it,  and  put  a  single  stroke  before  it,  thus  I  D,  to  denote 
rive  hundred;  and  when  this  five  hundred  was  doubled,  then 
they  also  doubled  their  double  right  angle,  setting  two  double 
right  angles  opposite  to  each  other,  with  a  single  stroke  between 
them,  thus  C  I  3,  to  denote  one  thousand:  when  this  note  for 
one  thousand  had  been  repeated  four  time%,they  then  put  down 
I  ID,  for  five  thousand;  C  C  I  D  D,  for  ten  thousand;  and 
I  13  D  D,  for  fifty  thousand. 

That  the  Romans  did  not  originally  write  M  for  one  thousand, 
and  C  for  one  hundred,  but  square  characters,  as  before  shown, 
we  are  expressly  informed  by  Paulus  Manutius ;  but  the  corners 
of  the  angles  being  cut  off  by  transcribers  for  despatch,  these 
figures  were  gradually  brought  into  what  are  now  called  nu- 
merical letters.  When  the  corners  of  C  I  3  were  made  round,  it 
stood  thus,  CIO,  which  is  so  near  the  Gothic  «,  that  it  soon 
deviated  into  that  character:  so  that  |  3  having  the  corners 
made  round,  stood  thus  I O,  and  then  easily  deviated  into  D.  C 
also  became  a  plain  C  by  the  same  means;  the  single  rectangle 
which  denoted  fifty,  was,  without  any  alteration',  a  capital  L; 
the  double  acute  angle  was  an  X;  the  single  acute  angle  a  V 
consonant;  and  a  plain  single  stroke,  the  letter  I.  And  thus 
these  seven  letters,  M,  D,  C,  L,  X,  V,  I,  became  numerals.  As 
a  further  proof  of  this  assertion,  let  it  be  considered,  that  CIO 
is  still  used  for  one  thousand,  and  I O  for  five  hundred,  instead 
of  M  and  D  ;  and  this  mark,  o,  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  one 
thousand,  which  may  easily  be  derived  from  this  figure,  C  I  D, 
but  cannot  be  deviations  from,  or  corruptions  of,  the  Roman 
letter  M.  The  Romans  also  expressed  any  number  of  thousands 
by  a  line  drawn  over  any  numeral  less  than  one  thousand;  thus, 
v  denotes  five  thousand,  LX,  sixty  thousand :  so  likewise  M  is 
one  million,  MM  two  millions,  &c. 

Upon  the  discovery  of  printing,  and  before  capitals  were 
invented,  small  letters  served  for  numerals,  which  they  have 
done  ever  since;  not  only  when  the  Gothic  characters  were  ir 
their  perfection,  but  even  after  they  ceased,  and  Roman  was 
become  the  prevailing  character.  Thus,  in  the  time  of  printing 
in  Gothic  characters,  i  t)  %  1  C  fr  1H  were,  and  are  still,  of  the 


70  TYPOGRAPHIA 

same  signification  with  capitals,  when  used  as  numerals.  Bat 
here  it  should  be  observed,  that  the  capital  J  is  no  numeral 
letter,  though  the  lower  case  j  is  as  often  and  as  significantly 
used  as  .he  vowel  i,  especially  where  the  former  is  used  as  a 
closing  letter,  in  ij  iij  t){  irij  triij  Jrdf,  &c.,  though  it  is  as  right 
not  to  use  j's  at  all,  unless  it  were  out  of  respect  to  antiquity; 
for  in  Roman  lower-case  numerals,  which  are  of  modern  date, 
the  j  is  not  regarded,  but  the  i  stands  for  a  figure  of  1,  wherever 
it  is  used  numerically. 


ARITHMETICAL  FIGURES. 

ARITHMETICAL  or  Arabic  figures  are  nine  in  number,  besides  the 
cipher,  or  nought. 

Figures  require  a  founder's  particular  care  to  cast  them 
exactly  n-thick,  and  to  a  true  parallel,  as  the  least  deviation 
where  a  number  of  them  come  together  in  table-work,  destroys 
their  arrangement,  and  causes  an  inconvenience  in  the  justifica- 
tion which  the  ingenuity  of  a  compositor  cannot,  without 
considerable  loss  of  time,  rectify. 

Printers  at  one  time  thought  it  a  great  impropriety  to  use 
erect  figures  in  italic  matter,  judging  that  the  obliquity  of  that 
character  would  be  intercepted  by  them,  and  therefore  had 
figures  cast  of  the  same  inclination  j  this  peculiarity  is  but  par- 
tially attended  to,  though  it  still  prevails  in  some  parts  abroad. 


CHAPTER  III. 

RULES. 

RULES  are  of  two  descriptions,  viz.  brass,  and  metal,  or  space 
rules ;  the  former  are  cut  from  sheet  brass,  and  the  latter  are 
cast  by  type-founders. 

Brass  rules  ought  to  be  exactly  letter  high;  if,  therefore, 
founts  differ  in  height  to  paper,  from  the  regular  standard,  those 
rules,  accurately  made,  are  rendered  useless;  for  if  they  aie 
higher  than  the  letter,  they  come  off  black  and  broad;  and, 
besides  hindering  the  adjoining  letters  from  appearing,  they  cut 
both  paper  and  tympan.  On  the  other  hand,  if  they  are  lower 
than  the  letter,  they  do  not  appear  at  all,  especially  if  they  are 
thin,  and  stand  between  matter  without  leads  at  their  sides; 
which  (in  particular  cases)  may  be  left  out  in  Roman  letter, 
yet  in  mixed  matter,  or  Italic,  a  lead  at  least  is  required  before 
and  after  a  thin  brass  rule,  to  prevent  its  touching  upon  d,  /,  I, 
at  the  fore-side,  and  upon/,  g-,  j, p,  y,  at  the  hind-side;  they 
are  made  of  various  thicknesses  for  column  rules  of  Magazines 
and  Newspapers,  and  when  required  for  the  latter  purpose 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  procure  those  made  of  the  very 
hardest  and  stiffest  material. 

The  face  of  the  rules  ought  to  be  attended  to,  that  they  may  be 
of  an  equal  bold,  or  else  tender  look,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
letter  or  figures  with  which  they  are  used.  But  a  great  differ- 
ence appears  in  this  particular,  when  we  find  it  necessary  to 
piece  them ;  a  compositor,  therefore,  when  he  is  driven  to  this 
necessity,  should  endeavor  to  dress  the  shorter  pieces,  in  order 
that  they  may  appear  as  one  length. 

The  thickness  of  rules  for  table-work  should  be  proportionable 
to  their  face,  without  so  much  shoulder  as  shall  hinder  a  cross 
rule  from  joining  a  perpendicular  line;  since  it  is  a  maxim, 
"That  rules  (in  table-work)  shall  fall  upon  and  touch  rules;" 
which,  if  followed,  has  a  good  effect. 

Sec  page  284  for  Labour-saving  Rules. 
7 


72  TYPOGRAPHIC. 

METAL  RULES  OR  DASHES. 

METAL  RULES  or  dashes,  like  quadrats,  are  cast  to  m's  from  the 
size  of  one  to  four,  sometimes  to  six  ni.'s,  and  are  used  in 
schemes  of  accounts,  to  direct  and  connect  each  article  with  its 
summary  contents,  where  they  stand  opposite,  and  distant  from 
each  other. 

Sometimes  dashes  stand  for  noughts,  in  columns  of  figures, 
where  the  dash  should  not  exceed  the  extent  which  figures 
require.  Thus,  in  a  column  of  four  ri?s;  a  two-m  dash  is 
answerable  to  them;  and  where  the  numeral  contents  of  a 
column  do  not  amount  to  above  hundreds,  an  m  dash  will  answer. 

Dashes  made  to  line  and  join  accurately,  are  very  useful,  as 
they  serve  not  only  for  rectilinear,  but  perpendicular  progres- 
sions, Avhere  no  other  rules  are  to  touch  them.  But  though  they 
have  shouldering  sufficient  to  bear  them  from  the  matter,  they 
require,  nevertheless,  a  lead  or  reglet  before  and  after  them,  that 
they  may  keep  in  line. 

Sometimes  a  dash  stands  for  a  sign  of  repetition,  in  catalogues 
of  goods,  where  it  implies  ditto;  and  in  catalogues  of  books, 
where  a  dash  signifies  ejusdem,  instead  of  repeating  an  author's 
name,  with  the  title  of  every  separate  treatise  of  his  writing: 
but  it  must  be  observed,  that  no  sign  of  repetition  must  be  at  the 
top  of  a  page;  but  that  the  name  of  the  author,  or  merchandise, 
must  be  set  out  again  at  length ;  and  if  their  series  continues,  to 
denote  the  continuation  thereof,  at  every  article,  by  a  dash  of 
three  or  four  m's,  so  as  to  range,  instead  of  extending  the  dash 
to  the  different  lengths  of  names. 

A  dash  likewise  stands  for  to  or  titt;  as,  chap.  xvi.  3 — 17. 
that  is,  from  the  third  to  the  seventeenth  verse.  At  other  times, 
it  serves  for  an  index,  to  give  notice,  that  what  follows  it  is  a 
corollary  of  what  has  preceded;  or  otherwise  matter  of  import 
and  consequence.  N  dashes  are  generally  cast,  which  are  very 
convenient  in  justifying  lines  of  dashes,  and  in  the  arrangement 
of  braces  where  middles  and  corners  are  used. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  73 

SPACE  RULES. 

SPACE  RULES  are  not  always  of  the  same  thickness,  though  two 
of  them  generally  answer  to  the  depth  of  a  Pearl  body.  But 
this  is  not  of  so  much  moment  as  their  being  of  a  neat  look,  and 
made  to  join  well;  when  this  is  the  case  they  may  be  considered 
valuable  sorts.  These  lines  are  cast  to  various  widths,  from 
one  m  to  six,  and  are,  in  intricate  rule  work,,  from  their  joining 
more  exact,  neater  than  brass  rule,  less  expensive,  and  more 
convenient  to  the  compositor. 

BRACES. 

BRACES  are  chiefly  used  in  tables  of  accounts,  and  similar 
matter,  that  consists  of  a  variety  of  articles,  which  would  require 
much  circumlocution,  were  it  not  for  the  method  of  tabular 
writing  now  practised. 

Braces  stand  before,  and  keep  together,  such  articles  as  are  of 
the  same  import,  and  are  the  sub-divisions  of  the  preceding 
articles.  They  sometimes  stand  after,  and  k'iep  together,  such 
articles  as  make  above  one  line,  and  have  either  pecuniary, 
mercantile,  or  other  posts  after  them,  which  are  justified  to 
answer  to  the  middle  of  the  brace. 

The  bracing  side  of  a  brace  is  always  turned  to  that  part  of  au 
article  which  makes  the  most  lines. 

Braces  are  sometimes  used  horizontally  in  the  margin  to  cut 
olf  a  chronological  or  other  series  from  the  proper  notes,  or 
marginal  references  of  the  work.  They  are  generally  cast  to 
two,  three  and  four  m's  of  each  fount,  but  can  be  had  larger  if 
desired.  When  there  is  occasion  for  them  larger,  middles  and 
corners  are  cast,  and  used  with  dashes,  so  that  the  brace  may 
include  any  space  required;  but  the  middles  and  corners,  as 
well  as  the  dashes,  require  to  be  cast  with  great  exactness,  that, 
when  joined,  they  may  appear  as  one  piece;  their  shoulders  in 
dressing  should  be  planed  away,  so  that  the  beard  may  not 
prevent  the  face  from  meeting.  The  difficulty  of  nicely  effecting 
this  has  caused  some  printers,  most  eminent  for  their  skill  and 
experience  in  table-work,  to  form  their  braces  out  of  brass  rule 


74  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

to  the  exact  lengths  required  for  each  occurring-  instance;  but, 
latterly,  metal  braces  have  been  cast  of  considerable  length 
entire. 

Middles  and  corners  are  convenient  in  genealogical  works,, 
where  they  are  used  the  flat  way ;  and  where  the  directing  point 
is  not  always  in  the  middle,  but  has  its  place  under  the  name 
of  the  parent,  whose  offspring  stands  between  corner  and  corner 
of  the  brace  inside,  in  order  of  primogeniture:  but  this  may  be 
superseded  to  advantage  by  the  use  of  brass  rule. 


SUPERIORS. 

As  we  have  already  treated  of  superior  letters  and  figures  under 
the  head  of  references,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  take  further 
notice  of  them  here,  than  to  observe  that  they  should  contain  no 
more  than  the  bare  alphabet,  without  any  double  letters.  Neither 
ought  the  j  to  be  used  as  a  reference,  on  account  of  its  being  a 
descending  letter.  A  larger  number  should  be  cast  of  the  first 
eight  sorts ;  a  less  of  the  second,  a  still  less  quantity  of  the  third 
eight  sorts;  because  it  often  happens  that  references  begin  with  a 
in  every  page;  though  sometimes  they  are  continued  to  the  end 
of  a  chapter,  or  other  division  of  a  work;  in  which  case  they 
may  run  the  length  of  the  alphabet. 

The  same  rule  may  be  observed  in  respect  to  superior  figures, 
more  of  the  first  five  being  used  than  the  others,  except  the 
nullo,  which  may  be  used  as  a  degree  in  geometrical  works. 


FRACTIONS. 

FRACTIONS,  or  broken  numbers  in  arithmetic,  were  formerly 
seldom  cast  to  any  other  bodies  than  those  of  Pica,  Small  Pica, 
Long  Primer,  Bourgeois,  and  Brevier,  but  since  the  use  of  small 
type  has  become  so  general  they  are  cast  to  almost  every  sized 
body.  A  great  improvement  has  recently  been  introduced  by 
casting  them  with  the  separatrix  to  run  obliquely  between  the 
numerator  and  denominator,  rendering  their  appearance  much 
more  clear  and  conspicuous. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  75 

Where  a  fraction  happens  with  large-bodied  figures,  such  as 
jrreat  Primer  and  upwards  it  is  usually  set  out  at  length,  unless 
imall  figures  can  be  conveniently  had,  which  may  be  justified 
with  the  same  neatness  as  fractions  cast  to  the  body. 


QUOTATIONS. 

QUOTATIONS  are  cast  to  two  sizes,  and  are  called  broad  and 
larrow.  They  should  be  cast  lower  than  quadrats  and  require 
o  be  dressed  and  finished  with  as  much  care  as  any  other  sort, 
hat  they  may  stand  true  upon  all  occasions.  They  vary  in  size 
according  to  the  standard  of  the  foundry  where  they  are  cast, 
which  is  highly  improper;  as  they  should  be  governed  by  a 
regular  standard  as  well  as  every  other  sort,  and  to  that  standard 
press-joiners  ought  to  cut  their  furniture;  but  we  are  sorry  to 
observe  so  little  attention  paid  to  this  important  part  of  the 
joiner's  business,  who  follow  too  much  in  the  steps  of  the  letter- 
founder,  and  cannot  decide  on,  and  adhere  to,  a  standard  guage 
for  their  furniture.  This  want  of  uniformity  gives  the  compo- 
sitor much  trouble  in  making  margin,  and,  with  all  his  care,  a 
form  will  sometimes  go  to  press  imperfect  in  this  respect,  which 
is  immediately  discovered  on  laying  on  the  reiteration.  The 
pressman  has  then  to  unlock  the  form  in  order  to  make  register; 
from  this,  a  dispute  will  too  frequently  arise  between  him  and 
the  compositor;  and,  what  is  still  worse,  from  frequent  unlock- 
ing on  the  press,  the  pages  will  suffer  some  derangement,  so  that 
the  most  skillful  corrector's  endeavors  to  send  a  work  perfect  to 
press,  will  thereby  be  frustrated. 

In  order  to  obviate  the  above  difficulties,  metal  furniture  of 
various  widths  is  now  cast  by  some  founders,  which  can  be 
relied  upon  for  its  accuracy,  not  being  liable  to  warp  or  expand 
by  heat  or  moisture,  and  most  of  the  respectable  printing  houses 
are  supplied  with  it. 


HOLLOW  OR  MORTISED  QUADRATS 
Are  now  made  by  L.  JOHNSON  &  Co.  of  Philadelphia,  which 
answer  the  purposes  of  Quotations,  as  well  as  frames  for  circular 
or  oval  jobs.     They  arc  cast  of  various  sizes,  graduated  to  Pica. 


76  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

TWO-LINE  LETTERS. 

THEY  are  now  cut  to  the  following  bodies,  Diamond,  Pearl, 
Nonpareil,  Minion,  Brevier,  Bourgeois,  Long  Primer,  Small 
Pica,  Pica,  English,  Great  Primer,  &c.  and  are  found  extremely 
useful  in  titles,  beginning  of  chapters,  advertisements,  jobs,  Stc. 


FLOWERS. 

AT  one  period  flowers  were  held  in  the  greatest  estimation,  and 
the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the  compositor  was  often  put  to  the 
test  in  forming  faces  and  devices  to  grace  the  head  pages  of  his 
work. 

The  variety  and  richness  of  the  designs  recently  introduced  by 
some  of  our  founders,  seems  to  have  occasioned  a  desire  on  the 
part  of  several  printers  to  introduce  the  old  mode  of  ornamenting. 

A  few  years  since,  so  great  was  the  rage  for  novelty  and 
alteration,  that  some  printers  were  not  content  with  merely  the 
exclusion  of  flowers,  but  they  stripped  their  works  of  every 
article  which  had  the  least  appearance  of  ornament;  even  rules 
of  every  description  were  banished  from  their  proper  stations  in 
title-pages,  heads,  &c.;  but  this  new-fangled  rage  did  not  long 
continue,  and  it  was  with  some  reluctance  that  they  would 
consent  to  the  re-introduction  of  them  in  certain  cases,  and  thus, 
by  degrees,  rules  have  again  resumed  their  necessary  functions. 

LEADS. 

LEADS  form  a  very  important  part  of  a  printer's  stock  in  trade, 
since  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  set  up  a  single  page  in  which 
they  may  not  be  usefully  employed;  but  their  chief  use  is  for 
opening  the  lines  to  a  regular  distance  from  each  other.  They 
are  usually  cast  by  letter-founders  in  a  tong  mould,  and  then 
cut  to  the  required  lengths.  The  bodies  are  regulated  by  pica 
standard,  and  they  are  usually  cast  four,  six,  or  eight  to  pica  • 
but  are  occasionally  varied  from  one  down  to  fourteen  to  pica. 
The  lengths  also  vary,  twenty  m's  pica  being  about  the  average, 
though  they  are  cut  to  almost  every  length,  in  order  that,  by 
being  combined,  they  may  suit  every  measure. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  77 

They  are  almost  indispensably  necessary  in  regulating  the 
blanks  between  displayed  lines  in  titles  and  other  pages.  They 
are  also  used  in  newspapers  to  designate  editorial  matter  from 
communicated  and  selected. 

NAMES  OF  LETTERS,  AND  THEIR  BEARINGS 

TO  EACH  OTHER. 

HAVING  already  treated  upon  the  properties  and  shapes  of  types, 
and  of  all  the  sorts  contained  in  a  complete  fount  of  letter,  with 
some  observations  on  the  use  and  proper  application  of  them, 
we  shall  now  endeavor  to  explain  the  origin  of  the  names  of  the 
various  sized  letters. 

Canon  is  confessed  to  have  been  first  produced  by  some 
artizan,  of  the  French  nation,  and  employed  in  some  work 
relating  to  the  canons  of  the  church;  to  which  the  German  title, 
Missal,  likewise  alludes. 

Two-lines  Double  Pica,  Two-lines  Great  Primer,  Two-lines 
English,  Two-lines  Pica,  and  Double  Pica,  have  their  names 
from  the  respective  bodies  of  which  the  depth  of  two  m  quadrats 
answers  to  one  of  the  double  sizes.  But  we  must  here  take 
notice,  that  our  Double  Pica  falls  in  with  what  the  Germans 
call  Secunda,  from  which  it  follows,  that  there  should  be  a 
Prima;  but  because  we  have  met  with  no  letter  of  that  name, 
we  conclude  that  Prima,  being  a  size  larger  than  Secunda,  and 
happening  to  answer  afterwards  to  two  lines  of  English,  Prima 
lost  its9  first  name,  and  was  turned  into  that  of  Roman.  Besides, 
that  Double  Pica  goes  in  Germany  by  the  name  of  Secunda, 
that  letter  is  also  called  Text;  as  we  cannot  assign  the  reason 
for  it,  we  shall  leave  it  to  connoisseurs  to  observe  which  of  the 
primitive  books  has  its  text  printed  in  that  character. 

Paragon  is  the  only  letter  that  has  preserved  its  name,  being 
called  so  by  all  the  printing  nations.  Its  appellation  shows, 
that  it  was  first  cut  in  France;  and  at  the  same  time  gives  us 
room  to  suppose,  that  the  state  of  well -shaped  letter  there  was 
at  that  time  but  indifferent;  because,  when  Paragon  happened 
to  turn  out  a  letter  of  better  shape  than  the  rest,  it  received  the 
name  of  perfect  pattern,  which  the  word  Paragon  implies. 


78  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

'Great  Primer,  in  Germany,  is 
called  Tertia,  and  is  therefore  one 
of  the  major  sizes  of  letter  which, 
in  the  infancy  of  the  Art,  served 
for  printing  several  works  of  con- 
sideration, and  particularly  the 
Bible ;  on  which  account  it  is  by 
some  called  Bible  Text. 

English  is  called  Mittel  by  the  Ger- 
mans, and  St.  Augustin  by  the  French 
and  Dutch ;  both  which  -names  might  be 
productive  of  considerable  argument;  the 
word  Mittel  bearing  the  same  meaning 
with  Middle,  intimates,  that  the  former 
si/es  of  letter  were  seven  in  number,  the 
centre  of  which  being  English,  with 
Prima,  Secunda,  and  Tertia,  ranging  on 
one  side,  and  Pica,  Long  Primer,  and 
Brevier,  occupying  the  other.  As  to  the 
name  of  St.  Augustin,  as  it  is  designated 
by  the  French  and  Dutch,  we  understand 
that  the  writings  of  that  Father  were  the 
first  works  done  in  that  sized  letter. 

Pica  is  another  letter  that  admits  of  having 
particular  notice  taken  of  it,  on  account  of  its 
being  called  Cicero  by  the  French  and  Germans; 
for  as  the  preceding  size  was  distinguished  by 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  79 

the  name  of  St.  Augustin,  so  has  this  been 
honored  with  that  of  Cicero,  on  account  of  the 
Epistles  of  that  writer  having  been  first  done  in 
letter  of  this  size ;  and  the  only  point  now  to 
decide  is,  whether  the  Germans  or  the  French 
were  the  first  who  dedicated  the  letter  of  this 
body  to  the  name  of  Cicero  on  the  before-men- 
tioned account. 

Small  Pica,  being  of  an  irregular  body,  takes  its 
name  here  froni  its  inferiority  to  Pica.  But  in  France 
they  assign  the  invention  of  this  body  of  letter  to  Phi- 
losophic; for  which,  indeed,  they  may  have  their 
reason,  considering  that  their  Cicero  and  Philosophic 
are  of  one  and  the  same  face ;  from  which,  we  conclude, 
that  they  dK  not  consider  Small  Pica  worth  cutting 
with  a  face  proportionable  to  its  body ;  and  that  the 
cramping  of  Cicero  to  Philosophic,  was  done  with  no 
other  view  than  to  get  in  upon  the  former.  This  we 
venture  to  suggest,  though  we  can  form  no  idea  why 
the  Germans  give  this  letter  the  name  of  Brevier. 

Long  Primer.  Upon  the  same  supposition,  that  some 
bodies  of  letter  took  their  names  from  works  in  which  they 
were  first  employed,  we  are  induced  to  believe  that  the 
Germans  gave  the  name  of  Corpus  to  this  character,  on 
account  of  their  Corpus  Juris  being  first  done  in  this  size, 
as  it  is  still  continued  in  that  letter;  but  whether  Garmoiid 
is  the  name  of  the  author,  or  what  signification  else  it  bears, 
we  have  no  items  of.  In  contradistinction  of  the  French 
Gros  Romain,  they  call  this  size  letter  Petit  Ilomain,  con- 
formable to  the  distinction  that  is  made  between  Great 
Primer  and  Long  Primer,  in  England. 

Bourgeois  is  a  letter  of  an  irregular  body,  and  has  hitherto 
been  received  accordingly.  By  its  name  it  seems  to  have  first 
come  from  France,  having  been  dedicated  to  the  master  printers 
there.  Gaillarde  is  a  letter  of  the  same  body,  but  has  the  face 
of  Petit  Remain.  Two  lines  of  this  letter  are  equivalent  to  a 
Great  Primer  body ;  and  one  line  to  two  of  Diamond. 


80  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

Brevier  takes  its  name  from  being  first  used  for  the  Breviary,  a 
Roman  Catholic  Church-book,  which  is  commonly  printed  in  this 
character.  It  is  called  Petit;  and  Jungfer,  or  Maiden  Letter,  by 
the  Germans,  on  account  of  its  comeliness. 

Minion.  Why  this  letter  was  denominated  Minion,  we  have  not  yet- 
been  informed;  probably  it  was  held  in  great  estimation  on  its  first  in- 
troduction, and  consequently  received  the.  title  of  (Darling)  Minion. 

Nonpareil.  Little  can  be  observed  with  respect  io  this  character:  why  it  received 
the  name  of  Nonpareil  no  one  has  yet  ventured  tc  nvestigate,  it  is  therefore  most 
probable  that  the  appellation  was  given  on  account  of  its  extraordinary  smallness 
in  proportion  to  those  letters  at  that  time  in  general  use. 

Pearl  With  respect  to  this  size  we  are  left  in  the  same  situation  as  the  last  mentioned,  consequently  we 
shall  a^ain  venture  at  a  su^estion  for  the  name  which  it  has  received :  it  is  probable  that  the  success  of  the 
foregoing  induced  the  founders  to  attempt  cutting  another  letter,  upon  a  smaller  body ;  and  as  this  was, 
undoubtedly,  a  greater  advance  to  ]>erfection,  it,  of  course,  was  designated  PCT!. 

Even   tlio  minuteness  of  the  t^-pe  just  mentioned,  dirl  not  d<*ter  the  founders  from  attempting  one   upon  a  still 


In  the  type  last  mentioned,  so  minute  is  each  character,  that 
of  the  lower  case  i  about  2,800  go  to  a  single  pound,  and  the 
thinnest  space  about  5,000! 

It  is  necessary  to  observe  that  the  foregoing  gradation  of  types, 
from  Great  Primer  to  Diamond  inclusive,  were  not  cast  by  one 
and  the  same  founder;  still  this  is  not  of  the  least  consequence, 
when  it  is  considered  that  the  founders  have  various  faces  to  the 
same  body,  consequently  it  would  have  not  only  been  improper 
to  have  made  a  selection  of  those  which  might  agree  as  to  the 
regular  gradation,  but  it  would  also  have  been  attended  with  a 
waste  of  time,  and  an  unnecessary  expense;  therefore,  we 
thought  proper  to  take  those  which  were  immediately  at  our 
command. 

Independently  of  the  letters  which  are  cast  upon  these  bodies, 
the  founders  cast  a  Nonpareil  face  on  a  Minion  body,  and  a 
Minion  on  a  Nonpareil:  a  Small  Pica  on  a  Pica,  and  all  the  other 
sizes,  either  in  ascending  or  descending  order. 

We  shall  now  give  the  proportion  which  one  size  of  type 
bears  to  another  in  width]  but  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that  it 
must  be  taken  with  certain  limitations,  because  each  founder 
has  letter  of  every  size,  that  will  either  drive  out  or  get  in  with, 
others  of  the  same  body;  therefore  it  is  impossible  for  us  to 
present  our  readers  .with  a  regular  gradation  of  the  different 
sizes  from  Great  Primer  to  Diamond  inclusive;  the  limitation 
of  each  line  is  marked  by  an  inverted  full-point. 


CM        CO 

«W        r-< 
,*M        •"* 

•  -4—- 
JSJ             O 

TYPOGRAPHIA. 

(M     ^    g    0    »g  0  ^ 

,g  .E,  S  g  S  |  S. 

rj3             QJ     S    M    9    .2 
0      0    C3    ^,    S     ^     1 

,    fl     ^    2  -^    «    o    So 

S    «  '7-.8|  >  | 

OO 
00  O 

1  1 

1   - 

!! 

8J 

S  ° 

O      CD 

RJ    e3 
S  'fc/D 

t^ 

"3 

CL) 

£ 

5 

^ 

J>> 

o 

g 

s 

o  -S 

—  ^       C3 

o 

C 

o 

^a 

^ 

cu 

? 

s 

1 

1"* 

^  "o 

.^     ce 

OF  TYPES. 

•s 

&N    'o 

^  ^3 
0  ^ 

CO 

fH 

TJD 

0) 
CO 

C3 

•  enlightened  1 

_g 
^ 

CD 

a 

B 
J± 
.±P 
a 

<u 

0 

P 

<D 

rg 

1 
1 

rf° 

2" 
P 

0 

T3 

a> 

c 
o 

9| 

^s 

"H 

0 

•: 

UJ 

justly  deserve  our  encc 

1 

|  CO 

to  six  parts,  fi 
contained  in  e 

& 

*"*     "SJ 

-g 

| 

CO 

"c 

/a 
.£P 

•5 

3- 

^s 

.S    £ 

0 

*b»    <! 

V 

-C 

^ 

S 

Q 

1 

1 

.1 

n—f       d) 

rg      S 

EH 

•  pH 

•^J 

^ 

13 

,-H 

C3 

-£ 

5 

2 

< 

Mpd             0 

^ 

*rS 

.2 

^ 

C3 

Jy» 

1 

1 

'S  ? 

P 

^^         CH 

o 

^-T 

> 

-^ 

"o 

'H 

JB 

"^     fc- 

<1 

1>0          "^ 

rH 

^5 

^ 

^ 

15 

'o 

<n 

I 

^  ^ 

co     CD 

•-H      _Q 

& 
O 

ao>  ^s 

*l 

CD 

.S 

1 

4 

tf 

'f 

9 

JS 

1 

.^> 

II    1 

>s  .2 

** 

"> 

g 

CD 

*< 

^ 

"§ 

ja 

1 

^      CD 

>^>  15 

CW 

? 

*> 

C3 

!S 

c 

CD 

.S 

£ 

•^ 

"o  ^ 

© 

T3 

CO 

- 

"? 

•^ 

D 

tf 

J 

d 
^d     ctf 

"fl      0 

o 

-5 

CO 

.2 

!2 

^a 

'"3 

'£ 

§ 

fcJD    oT 
G     0 

^    G 

0 

*• 

^ 

•S 

^S 

^> 

7 

| 

4J    g 

CU     r/) 

C 

C 

o 

o 

*-. 

5 

." 

* 

_g   ^ea 

el 

0 
0 

Q 

CO 

O 

P 

TO 
0^ 
C 

P 

c 

CO 

& 

0 

Q 

c 

o 
o 

P 

c 

0 

c 

1 

0" 

i 

1 

5 
I          ,- 

H  "a 

O 

82  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

It  is  a  point  of  the  utmost  importance  that  a  printer  should  be 
well  acquainted  with  the  exact  proportion  which  one"  body  of 
letter  bears  to  another;  without  a  possession  of  this  knowledge, 
he  is  unable  to  form  an  accurate  judgment  as  to  the  size  of  the 
type  most  suitable  for  a  work  that  is  intended  to  be  confined 
within  a  given  number  of  sheets;  neither  can  he  form  a  correct 
opinion  as  to  the  extent  of  a  work,  unless  he  possess  a  rule 
whereby  to  guide  his  calculation  as  to  the  quantity  of  copy 
which  the  proposed  type  may  either  take  in,  or  otherwise  drive 
out. 

A  scale  has  been  introduced  in  England  for  measuring  the 
depth  of  letter  from  Great  Primer  to  Nonpareil;  we  should  have 
inserted  a  similar  one,  had  we  not  been  convinced  of  its  in  utility ; 
because,  as  we  have  before  observed,  not  only  do  respective 
founders  vary,  but  as  great  a  difference  exists  in  each  individual 
foundry.  If  letter  were  cast,  as  it  ought  to  be,  to  2.  mathematical 
standard,  such  a  scale  wpuld  be  of  the  greatest  consequence:  a 
certain  number  of  m's  unquestionably,  should  be  allowed  to  a 
foot,  as  three  barley-corns  to  an  inch ;  viz.  Pica  72  m's,  and  all 
others  in  the  same  proportion;  whereas,  we  now  have  halves 
and  quarters  included :  from  such  a  system,  what  can  we  expect 
but  confusion^  They  may  vary  the  face  of  the  letter  as  they 
please;  but,  as  to  height  to  paper  and  depth  of  body,  the  printers 
should  insist  upon  their  keeping  to  a  true  mathematical  standard. 

In  order  to  show  the  variations  in  the  depth  of  type,  we  shall 
give  an  example,  by  inserting  two  lines  of  Long  Primer  m's 

ssssss'sssassss 
ssssssssasasas 

The  great  difference  in  body  here  exhibited,  not  only  applies 
to  Long  Primer,  but  also  to  every  other  size. 

CASTING  OFF  COPY. 

To  cast  off  manuscript  with  accuracy  and  precision,  is  a  task 
of  a  disagreeable  nature,  which  requires  great  attention  and 
mature  deliberation.  The  trouble  and  difficulty  is  much  in- 
creased, when  the  copy  is  not  only  irregularly  written  (which 
is  too  frequently  the  case),  but  also  abounds  with  interlineations. 


TYPOGRAPHY.  83 

erasures,  and  variations  in  the  sizes  of  paper.  To  surmount 
these  defects  the  closest  application  and  attention  is  required ; 
yet,  at  times,  so  numerous  are  the  alterations  and  additions,  that 
they  not  unfrequently  baffle  the  skill  and  judgment  of  the  most 
experienced  calculators  of  copy.  Such  an  imperfect  and  slovenly 
mode  of  sending  works  to  the  press  (which  is  generally  attended 
with  unpleasant  consequences  to  all  parties)  cannot  be  too 
strongly  deprecated  by  all  admirers  of  the  art. 

The  first  thing  necessary  is  to  take  a  comprehensive  view  of 
the  copy,  and  to  notice  whether  it  is  written  even,  if  it  has  many 
interlineations,  &c,  also  the  number  of  break-lines,  and  whether 
divided  into  chapters  and  sub-heads,  in  order  that  allowance  may 
be  made  for  them  in  the  calculation,  so  that  the  plan  of  the  work 
may  not  afterwards  be  infringed  on.  These  observations  should 
be  entered  as  a  memorandum,  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper,  to 
assist  the  memory,  and  save  the  trouble  of  re-examining  the 
manuscript. 

This  preparation  being  made,  we  then  take  that  part  of  the 
copy  for  calculation  which  comes  nearest  to  the  general  tendency 
of  the  writing,  and  reckon  the  number  of  words  contained  in  cne 
line,  previously  counting  a  number  of  separate  lines,  so  that  the 
one  we  adopt  may  be  a  fair  average;  we  then  take  the  number 
of  lines  in  a  page,  and  multiply  the  one  by  the  other,  which  we 
again  multiply  by  the  quantity  of  folios  the  manuscript  copy 
may  contain,  and  thus  we  are  put  in  possession  of  the  amount 
of  the  words  contained  in  the  work,  with  as  little  loss  of  time, 
and  as  much  accuracy  as  circumstances  will  admit ;  the  neces- 
sary allowances  should  then  be  made  for  break-lines,  chapters, 
insertions,  &c.  according  to  the  observations  previously  made  on 
the  memorandum. 

If  the  information  has  been  furnished,  what  size  letter  the 
work  is  to  be  done  in,  and  what  the  width  of  the  page,  we  make 
our  measure  accordingly,  and  after  composing  a  few  lines  of  the 
manuscript  copy,  are  enabled  to  form  an  opinion  what  number 
of  words  come  into  each  printed  line;  we  then  take  the  length 
ot  our  page,  generally  to  double  the  number  of  m?s  contained  in 
a  single  line,  or  less,  and  multiply  the  one  by  the  other,  which 
produces  the  information  we  had  previously  gained  from  the 

8 


84  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

adoption  of  the  same  mode  on  the  manuscript  page;  we  compare 
their  results,  and  if  the  manuscript  drives  out,  we  multiply  the 
print  by  a  larger  number  than  the  last  folio  of  the  writing,  and 
so  vice  versa;  if  the  print  drives  out,  we  multiply  it  by  a  less, 
until  we  bring  the  number  of  words  to  agree ;  the  multiplier  on 
the  printed  calculation  will  show  what  will  be  the  last  folio  of 
the  printed  volume,  which  we  divide  into  sheets  according  to 
the  given  size  of  the  work,  and  we  are  then  in  full  possession, 
whether  it  will  bear  to  be  leaded,  or  the  chapters  begin  pages, 
&c.,  or  whether  it  must  be  made  up  close,  the  measure  widened, 
the  page  lengthened,  or  the  size  of  the  letter  reduced. 

Should  the  size  of  the  page  and  letter  be  left  to  the  opinion  of 
the  printer,  with  no  other  order  than  the  number  of  sheets  the 
work  is  intended  to  make,  from  following  the  above  mode  he 
will  be  enabled  pretty  accurately  to  give  his  directions ; — but  as 
it  is  necessary,  on  a  subject  like  the  present,  to  be  as  clear  in  our 
observations  as  possible,  we  will  exemplify  what  has  been  laid 
down.  We  are  supposed  to  have  made  our  remarks  upon  the 
manner  of  the  writing  as  directed,  and  we  take  the  number  of 
words  in  a  line  of  manuscript  at  20,  the  lines  in  a  page  at  50; 
we  multiply  50  by  20,  which  will  produce  1000  words  in  a  page  j 
we  then  multiply  1000  by .422,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the 
number  of  folios  in  the  manuscript,  and  we  shall  find  it  contain 
422,000  words. — The  work  being  printed  in  Pica  8vo.  20  m's 
measure,  and  each  line  containing  10  words,  each  page  40 
lines — the  case  will  stand  thus  : — 


MANUSCRIPT. 

50 
20 

1000 
422 

2000 
2000 
4000 

422000  words  in  MS. 


40  . 
10 

400 1 


PRINTED. 


400 


422000  words. 

Divide 

16  |  1055  |  65  sheets, 
15  pages. 


Having  ascertained  the  number  of  sheets  the  work  will  make, 
and  that  number  being  sufficient   for  two  volumes,  they  are 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  85 

divided  accordingly.  But  should  the  author  wish  to  have  his 
work  comprised  in  one  volume,  it  is  requisite  to  be  prepared 
with  the  sized  type  and  measure  which  may  accord  with  his 
inclination. 

As  there  are  two  methods  of  casting  off  copy,  we  shall  con- 
clude this  article  with  the  one  laid  down  in  former  grammars: 

"  After  having  made  the  measure  for  the  work,  we  set  a  line 
of  the  letter  that  is  designed  for  it,  and  take  notice  how  much 
copy  will  come  into  the  line  in  the  stick,  whether  less  or  more 
than  a  line  of  manuscript.  And  as  it  is  seldom  that  neither  one 
nor  the  other  happens,  we  make  a  mark  in  the  copy  where  the 
line  in  the  stick  ends,  and  number  the  words  that  it  contains. 
But  as  this  is  not  the  safest  way  for  casting  off  close,  we  count 
not  only  the  syllables  but  even  the  letters  that  are  in  a  line  in  the 
stick,  of  which  we  make  a  memorandum,  and  proceed  to  set  off 
a  second,  third,  or  fourth  line,  till  a  line  of  copy  falls  even  with 
a  line  in  the  stick.  And  as  we  did  to  the  first  line  in  the  stick, 
so  we  do  to  the  other,  marking  on  the  manuscript  the  end  of 
each  line  in  the  stick,  and.  telling  the  letters  in  each,  to  see  how 
they  balance  against  each  other.  This  being  carefully  done,  we 
begin  counting  off,  each  time,  as  many  lines  of  copy  as  we  know 
will  make  even  lines  in  the  stick.  For  example,  if  2  lines  of 
copy  make  3  lines  in  print,  then  4  make  6,  6  make  9,  8  make 
12,  and  so  on,  calling  every  two  lines  of  copy  three  in  print. 

"  In  like  manner  we  say,  if  4  lines  make  5,  then  8  make  10, 
and  so  on,  comparing  every  four  lines  of  copy  to  five  lines  in 
print. 

"  And  in  this  manner  we  carry  our  calculation  on  as  far  as 
we  have  occasion,  either  for  pages,  forms,  or  sheets. 

"The  foregoing  calculations  are  intended  to  serve  where  a 
line  of  print  takes  in  less  than  a  line  of  copy,  and  therefore 
where  a  line  of  print  takes  in  more  than  a  line  of  copy,  the 
problem  is  reversed,  and  instead  of  saying,  if  2  lines  make  3,  we 
say,  in  this  case,  if  3  lines  of  copy  make  2  lines  in  print,  then  6 
lines  make  4,  9  make  6,  12  make  8,  and  so  on,  counting  three 
lines  of  copy  to  make  two  lines  in  print.  In  this  manner  we 
may  carry  our  calculation  to  what  number  of  pages,  forms,  or 
sheets  we  will,  remembering  always  to  count  off  as  many  lines 


86  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

of  copy  at  once,  as  we  have  found  they  will  make  even  lines  in 
the  stick.  Thus,  for  example,  if  5  lines  make  7,  the  progression 
of  5  is  10,  15,  20,  &c.  and  the  progression  of  7  will  be  14,  21, 
28,  &c. 

"In  counting  off  copy,  we  take  notice  of  the  breaks;  and 
where  we  judge  that  one  will  drive  out,  we  intimate  it  by  a 
mark  of  this  [shape;  and  again,  where  we  find  that  a  break  will 
get  in,  we  invert  it  thus].  And  to  render  these  marks  con- 
spicuous to  the  compositor,  we  write  them  in  the  margin,  that 
he  may  take  timely  notice  of,  and  keep  his  matter  arcordingly. 
We  also  take  care  to  make  proper  allowance  for  heads  to  chap- 
ters, sections,  paragraphs,  &c. 

"In  examining  the  state  of  the  copy,  we  must  observe 
whether  it  has  abbreviations,  that  we  may  guard  against  them 
in  casting  off,  and  allow  for  them  according  to  the  extent  of  the 
respective  words,  when  written  out  at  length." 

We  trust  that  the  Toregoing  observations  upon  this  subject, 
will  convey  a  sufficient  idea  as  to  the  best  mode  of  casting  off 
copy;  still  these  remarks  more  properly  apply  to  regular  written, 
as  well  as  thoroughly  revised  copy.  Upon  this  subject  Smith 
justly  observes — 

"But  how  often  one  or  more  of  these  requisites  are  wanting, 
compositors  can.  best  tell;  though  very  few  will  imagine,  that 
among  men  of  learning  there  should  be  some,  who  write  after 
such  a  manner,  that  even  those  who  live  by  transcribing,  rather 
shun  than  crave  to  be  employed  by  them :  no  wonder,  therefore, 
if  compositors  express  not  the  best  wishes  to  such  promoters  of 
printing.  But  it  is  not  always  the  capacious  genius  that  ought 
to  be  excused  for  writing  in  too  great  a  hurry;  for  sometimes 
those  of  no  exuberant  brains  affect  uncouth  writing,  on.purpose 
to  strengthen  the  common  notion,  that  the  more  learned  the  man, 
the  worse  is  his  (hand)  writing;  which  shows,  that  writing  well, 
or  bad,  is  but  a  habit  with  those  that  can  write." 


CHAPTER  IV. 

COMPOSING. 

HAVING  arrived  at  that  portion  of  our  work  which  more  imme- 
diately concerns  the  young  practitioner,,  we  deem  it  highly 
requisite  to  offer  a  few  remarks  on  the  attitude  or  position  whicn 
it  is  necessary  that  he  should  acquire  upon  his  first  introduction 
to  the  department  of  composing. 

There  are  many  persons'  now  employed  in  the  art,  who 
frequently,,  with  great  justice,  inveigh  in  strong  terms  against 
the' conduct  of  those  unto  whose  care  they  were  first  entrusted, 
for  suffering  them  to  contract  those  ill-becoming  postures  which 
are  productive  of  knock  knees,  round  shoulders,  and  other 
deformities.  It  is  deeply  to  be  regretted,  that  those  wrho  under- 
take so  important  a  charge,  are  not  better  qualified  to  fulfil  that 
duty:  instead  of  suffering  the  tender  shoot  to  grow  wild  and 
uncultivated,  when  the  prun ing-knife,  in  a  gentle  hand,  with  a 
little  admonition,  would  have  checked  its  improper  growth,  and 
trained  it  in  a  right  course. 

Wiiat  to  a  learner  may  appear  fatiguing,  time  and  habit  will 
render  easy  and  familiar;  and  though  to  work  with  his  cases  on 
a  level  with  his  breast,  may  at  first  tire  his  arms,  yet  use  will  so 
inure  him  to  it,  that  it  will  become  afterwards  equally  unpleasant 
to  work  at  a  low  frame.  This  method  will  likewise  keep  the 
body  in  an  erect  position,  and  prevent  those  effects  which  result 
from  pressure  on  the  stomach. 

The  standing  position  of  a  compositor  should  be  perfectly 
upright,  without  stiffness  or  restraint;  the  shoulders  thrown 
back,  the  feet  firm  on  the  floor,  heels  nearly  closed,  and  toes 
turned  out  to  form  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  The  head  and 
body  should  be  kept  perfectly  steady,  except  when  moving  from 
the  roman  to  the  italic  case,  the  operations  of  distributing  and 
composing  being  performed  by  the  various  motions  of  the  arm, 
from  the  shoulder  joint  alone;  and  if,  to  reach  a  box  placed  in 
8* 


88  TYPOGRAPMIA. 

the  further  part  of  the  cases,,  to  put  in,,  or  take  out  a  letter,  he 
should  incline  the  body  by  a  slight  motion,  he  should  imme- 
diately resume  his  erect  position.  The  height  of  a  compositor 
and  his  frame  should  be  so  adjusted,  that  his  right  elbow  may 
just  clear  the  front  of  the  lower  case  by  the  a  and  r  boxes, 
without  the  smallest  elevation  of  the  shoulder  joint;  his  breast 
will  then  be  opposite  the  space,  h,  and  e  boxes.  Sitting  to  his 
work  should  only  be  permitted  on  particular  occasions,  and  then 
his  stool  should  be  a  small  piece  of  board,  fastened  to  a  single 
leg:  resting  the  whole  weight  of  the  body  upon  one  leg,  while 
the  other  foot  is  on  the  bottom  of  the  frame,  must  be  strictly 
avoided,  as  a  deformity  of  the  legs  will  be  the  certain  conSe- 
quence;  if  fatigued  by  walking  previous  to  beginning  work,  he 
should  rather  take  the  stool  for  a  short  time,  than  resort  to  the 
means  above  mentioned  for  relief.  There  are,  undoubtedly, 
circumstances  under  which  it  may  be  necessary  for  a  compositor 
to  be  much  on  his  stool, — lameness,  weakness,  old  age,  or  other 
infirmity;  but,  in  the  absence  of, these  excuses,  an  habitual  sitter 
I  should  call  an  habitual  idler:  that  which  at  first  going  to  case 
may  appear  fatiguing  to  the  novice,  habit  will  render  familiar 
and  easy ;  a  perseverance  in  conquering  a  little  fatigue  will  be 
amply  repaid  by  the  reflection  that  it  will  prevent  all  the  evils 
of  knock  knees,  round  shoulders,  obstructed  circulation  of  the 
blood,  and  respiration  of  the  lungs,  and  though  last,  not  least, 
habits  of  idleness. 

The  question  still  remains  undecided  with  many  masters,  as 
to  the  most  proper  part  of  the  business  that  should  first  engage 
the  attention  of  the  learner  without  confusing  his  ideas;  various 
methods  are  adopted,  each  following  the  mode  he  thinks  best. 
Sorting  pi  is  generally  the  first  employment,  and  afterwards  to 
set  it  up,  which  unquestionably  gives  the  youth  a  strong  insight 
into  the  nature  of  the  business,  makes  him  acquainted  with  the 
different  sizes  of  type  and  the  method  of-  composing,  and 
prepares  his  understanding  for  the  comprehension  of  whatever 
direction  may  be  given  him  when  he  is  put  to  the  case.  The  next 
duty  is  that  of  teaching  him  the  nature  of  the  cases,  a  knowledge 
easily  acquired  by  paying  proper  attention  to  that  part  of  the 
profession. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  89 

In  presenting  the  cases  to  the  notice  of  the  beginner,,  we  shall 
first  give  those  generally  used  in  the  United  States;  secondly, 
the  late  Lord  Stanhope's  plan ;  and  lastly,  those  which  we  have 
adopted. 

The  schemes  of  cases  in  the  following  pages,  are  given  as 
those  generally  in  use  in  the  United  States,  or  at  least  those  which 
we  have  found  to  be  most  numerous;  but  it  is  here  necessary  to 
observe  that  in  some  offices  slight  deviations  will  be  found, 
such  as  the  transposition  of  the  comma  and  w,  y,  and  p,  &c. 
In  the  upper  case  several  empty  boxes  will  be  found,  which 
are  usually  filled  with  fractions  or  useful  sorts  employed  in  the 
work  in  hand,  but  not  unfrequently  with  pi. 


CO 

o 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


UPPER  CASE  GENERALLY  USED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

8 

r 

o 

o 

& 

« 

« 

j 

N 

* 

^ 

ill 

L 

w 

* 

H 

ta 

3 
« 

l\ 

• 

ft. 

CJ 

HS 

I 

? 

* 

0! 

N 

H 

- 

? 

h 

•*. 

- 

H 

p, 

M 

1 

8 

o 

O 

^ 

/•s 

r 

'8 

h 

2 

> 

i  —  i 

= 

9 

«, 

s 

r- 

P 

~ 

fii 

Q 

j 

OD 

- 

-Hh 

' 

0 

w 

K 

N 

- 

CQ 

»—  1 

G» 

* 

* 

<i 

a 

p, 

H 

TYPOGRAPHIA. 


91 


to 
H 

H 
<1 
H 

m 

Q 
H 
H 

S 
P 

H 
M 
H 


LOWER  CASE  GENERALLY  USED 


m  quadrats. 


n  quadrate. 


92  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

We  beg  to  call  the  reader's  attention  to  the  cases  upon  the 
late  Earl  Stanhope's  plan,  and  also  to  his  remarks  on  the  same: 

ff  I  have  deemed  it  advisable  to  contrive  a  new  pair  of.  com- 
posing cases,  making  a  new  arrangement  of  the  types  in  the 
boxes,  introducing  a  new  set  of  double  letters,  which  I  denomi- 
nate logotypes;  and  rejecting  altogether  the  double  letters  iT,  fi, 
fl,  ffi,  ffl,  formerly  occupying  room  in  the  eases,  but  used  so 
seldom  that  they  might  rather  be  considered  as  retarding  than 
lorwarding  the  work  of  the  compositor. 

"  My  object,  in  this  matter,  has  been,  to  afford  the  best  means 
for  the  compositor's  comfort  in  composing,  combining  therewith 
the  greatest  attainable  expedition.  Upon  first  looking  into  this 
part  of  the  business,  which  naturally  fell  under  my  observation, 
L  was  forcibly  struck  with  the  result  of  some  examinations  which 
I  caused  to  be  made,  in  order  to  ascertain  correctly  the  frequency 
of  the  occurrence  of  the  several  different  types  in  composition. 
Those  examinations  pointed  out,  that  the  double  letters  ff,  fi,  fl, 
ffi,  ffl,  J£,  (E,  oe,  OB,  were  so  little  used  in  'composition  as  to 
occupy  room  in  the  composing  cases  unnecessarily ;  I  therefore 
resolved  on  getting  rid  of  them;  and  resorted  to  the  adoption  of 
a  slight  change  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  f,  to  keep  the  dot 
which  forms  its  top  from  overhanging  and  being  broken  off  by 
ascending  letters.  Man  is  so  much  the  child  of  custom,  and  so 
much  the  implicit  admirer  of  fancied  beauty,  that  I  believe  if  the 
human  body  generally  was  very  round  shouldered,  and  if  the 
head  projected  considerably  beyond  the  chest,  it  would,  in  such 
a  case,  be  deemed  a  deformity  to  see  a  man  with  an  upright 
body,  and  carrying  his  head  erect.  Having  this  opinion  upon 
so  weighty  a  subject,  I  was  not  surprised  to  meet  with  objectors 
to  the  proposed  alteration  in  the  shape  of  so  humble  a  servan* 
of  literature  as  the  letter  f :  readers  had  been  so  long  accustomed 
to  meet  her  with  a  downcast  head,  apparently  too  weighty  to  he- 
supported  by  her  feeble  neck,  that  she  failed  in  meeting  with  a 
welcome  reception  in  assuming  the  appearance  of  strength,  by 
carrying  her  head  upright.  Let  us  put  the  two  together.  Now 
I  do  not  say  that  though  the  beauty  of  the  letter  l)e  diminished 
by  the  change,  yet  that,  in  consideration  of  the  advantage 
attendant  upon  the  change,  we  should  reconcile  ourselves  to  it; 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  93 

but  I  say  that,  independent  of  every  other  view  of  the  matter, 
the  f  which  I  introduce  is  of  a  preferable  shape,  in  look  alone, 
to  the  f  which  I  discard.  I  can  easily  conceive  that  many 
fantastical  flourishes  which  are  given  to  some  letters  in  old 
printed  books,  had  their  admirers  when  these  books  were  first 
published;  but  it  would  be  difficult  for  any  person  now  to 
succeed,  if  he  wer^to  undertake  to  show  their  superior  beauty, 
and  insist  upon  their  restoration  to  use.  I  shall  not  hesitate  in 
being  for  once  a  prophet,  and  foretel  that  when  the  f  which  I 
insist  upon  introducing,  has  become  common  in  books,  the  f 
now  admired  will  be  condemned  solely  because  of  its  compara- 
tively inelegant  shape. 

"  I  have  said  thus  much  on  the  f,  because  it  has  stood  in  the 
way  of  the  improvement  which  I  planned,  by  occupying  with 
its  numerous  relatives,  considerable  portions  of  the  composing 
cases. 

"Although  I  condemn  all  the  above  double  letters,  as  inelegant 
and  useless,  as  occupying,  to  the  inconvenience  of  the  compo- 
sitor, a  considerable  part  of  the  area  of  composing  cases,  as 
loading  founts  with  sorts  which  sometimes  remain  new  when 
the  fount  is  generally  worn  out;  as  burthening  the  type-founder 
with  the  expenses  of  punches  and  matrices  from  which  he  might 
be  entirely  exonerated;  yet  I  am  led  to  view  another  sort  of 
double  letters  in  just  as  favorable  a  light  as  those  appear  the 

reverse. 

• 

"  First.  The  nine  logotypes  now  in  use  are  omitted.  They 
are  proposed  to  be  printed  with  separate  types,  thus :  ff,  f i,  fl. 
ffi,  ffl,  &c.  And  the  Italic  thus:  ff,fl,  &c.  instead  rfff,fi,fl, 
&c.  In  20  pages  of  Enfield's  Speaker,  (namely,  from  page 
71  to  90,  both  inclusive,)  those  logotypes  occur  only  95  times, 
viz. 

PRESENT  LOGOTYPES. 

fffiflfiiffluE(Ea303     ?  Total 
28  51    10    4     2       0      0     0     0     5    95. 

"  Secondly.  Eight  new  logotypes  are  introduced.  Their 
regular  and  frequent  occurrence  expedite  the  process  of  compo- 
sition in  a  very  considerable  degree;  for,  in  those  same  20 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


UPPER  CASE  UPON  THE  LATE  EARL  STANHOPE'S  PLAN. 

p 

& 

0 

O 

^ 

4 

Co. 

- 

> 

« 

p, 

s 

o 

O 

0 

H 

• 

« 

I/i 

•?. 

fi 

1  —  1 

0 

0 

H 

tf 

* 

o 

. 

OO 

- 

H 

* 

- 

« 

CD 

>* 

^ 

^ 

* 

8 

< 

CO 

-. 

- 

=3= 

-M- 

- 

& 

^ 

'o 

0 

& 

»= 

^ 

H-» 

> 

.55 

h 

i:i 

:o     J 

H 

s 

H 

j 

5 

so 

J 

Q 

N 

tf 

w 

O 

>H- 

GJ 

v—  H 

pq 

M 

p. 

a 

j 

3 


02 


O 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


95 


O 

E 


H 
iJ 


fcJD 


K 
EH 


O 
P-. 


55-l  = 


96  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

pages,  the  new  logotypes  would  save  to  the  compositor  no  less 
than  3073  lifts,  viz. 

STANHOPE  LOGOTYPES. 

th       in      an      re      se      to      of      on      ?  Total, 
771    441    413   385    291  279  264    229    J  3073. 

"  Thirdly.  The  introduction  of  the  new  logotypes  and  the 
great  imperfection  of  the  various  existing  arrangements  of 
composing  cases,  have  caused  the  above  new  and  very  superior 
arrangement  to  be  adopted. 

"  Fourthly.  The  front  side  of  each  box  of  the  lower  case  is 
made  sloping,  instead  of  upright;  which  shape  is  convenient 
both  to  the  view  and  to  the  hand  of  the  compositor,  and  it 
enables  him  to  lift  the  types  with  the  same  rapidity  and  ease 
when  the  boxes  are  nearly  empty  as  when  they  are  full.  The 
types  are  much  better  preserved  from  wear,  by  means  of  this 
shape.  It  also  allows  the  lower  case  to  be  made  deeper  than 
usual;  so  that,  two  of  them  contain  as  much  as  three  lower 
cases  on  the  old  construction.  At  the  bottom  of  each  box  of  the 
upper  case,  the  internal  front  arras  is  filled  up. 

"  The  saving  of  time  is  of  immense  importance,  especially  in 
all  cases  where  despatch  is  particularly  required.  The  new 
cases  are,  by  experience,  found  to  save  full  one  day  out  of  six  to 
the  compositor. 

"  Fifteen  boxes  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  upper  case  are 
represented  empty.  They  are  intended  for  the  sorts  which  are 
sometimes  used  for  particular  works;  such  as,  accented  letters, 
mathematical  marks,  &c. 

"  As  the  asterisk,  or  star,  (*)  is  very  liable  to  be  filled  with  ink 
at  press,  it  is  intentionally  excluded  from  among  the  reference 
marks. 

"  In  the  upper  case  I  have  put  a  galley  ledge  over  the  third 
row  of  boxes.  I  do  not  propose  putting  the  galley,  as  usual, 
towards  the  right-hand  end  of  the  case,  for  I  occupy  that  neigh- 
borhood with  useful  sorts,  that  is,  sorts  which  may  be  often 
wanted  in  composition;  but  I  propose  placing  the  galley  on  the 
left-hand  side  of  the  case,  which  I  therefore  represent  as  empty 
boxes,  leaving  them  to  be  filled  when  occasion  requires,  with 
accented  letters,  or  other  unusual  sorts.  This  quarter  of  the 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  97 

case  is  evidently  that  which  requires  the  most  awkward  motion 
of  the  compositor,  if  he  has  occasion  to  go  there  to  take  types 
out  of  the  boxes,  and  therefore  the  most  proper  to  be  generally 
left  unoccupied  with  types.  I  consider  the  figures  to  be  fully  as 
well  arranged  as  formerly,  easily  to  be  remembered,  and  better 
placed  in  being  so  compactly  together.  The  small  capitals 
undergo  the  least  change  as  to  arrangement:  this  is,  however, 
clearly  improved,  inasmuch  as  their  first  row,  that  most  used,  is 
entitled  to  be  brought  nearer  to  the  compositor  than  the  last 
three  letters  of  the  alphabet,  which  are,  in  comparison  so  little 
used." 

This  logo  system,  we  are  informed,  was  once  attempted  at  the 
London  Times  office,  but  soon  after  abandoned;  it  was  found 
that  the  hands  could  get  through  much  more  work  by  the  old 
process,  than  by  the  proposed  improvement.  It  was  also  tried 
at  Boston,  Mass.,  some  ten  or  twelve  years  since,  under  our 
own  observation,  and  found  to  be. ineffectual. 

We  must  certainly  coincide  with  his  Lordship  in  his  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  discarding  the  double  letters,  as  we  consider 
them  quite  as  inelegant  and  useless  as  was  the  long  s,  long 
since  discarded. 


UPPER  CASE  UPON  T.  F.  ADAMS'  PLAN. 

TYPOGRAPHIA. 

». 

r 

^ 

O 

2 

p 

I  —  1 

* 

4 

e 

fe 

s 

:- 

- 

© 

L 

« 

w 

J 

ca 

N 

re 

jj 

i 

Q 

w 

tf 

% 

I 

0 

1—4 

GJ 

M 

PQ 

V-H 

^H 

£ 

• 

• 

^ 

a 

O 

t> 

ft 

MOO 

; 

o 

•  > 

p 

••  i 

r 

». 

8 

N 

M 

H 

= 

W|03 

fi 

H 

- 

OS 

N 

T 

* 

e 

p 

M 

X 

|>. 

-M- 

* 

i| 

0 

i-s 

or 

M 

*• 

* 

« 

- 

^ 

* 

• 

H, 

H, 

- 

a 

o 

> 

LOWER  CASE  UPON  T.  F.  ADAMS'  PLAN. 

TYPOGRAPHIA. 

99 

00 

o^       o 

m  quadrats. 

1 

^ 

— 

•  •             i 

Co- 

CO 

fee 

- 

^ 

«.. 

J* 

•s 

- 

* 

. 

tt 

CO 

K 

- 

» 

- 

0 

~ 

n  quadrats. 

<D 

- 

a. 
co 

•* 

- 

s 

!l   !| 

- 

« 

* 

O 

6 

«s 

- 

fa 

'4 

- 

« 

m    » 

M         cr< 

>• 

100  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

It  has  always  been  a  matter  of  surprise  to  us,  that  so  little 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  this  important 
branch  of  the  compositor's  business,  while  there  seems  to  have 
been  so  much  care  and  expense  lavished  upon  the  other  branches 
of  the  Art.  Presuming  to  be  aware  of  the  defects  of  the  cases 
upon  the  old  plan,  we  have  endeavored  to  furnish  the  trade  with 
what  we  deem  to  be  an  essential  improvement. 

In  presenting  our  plan  of  cases  to  the  trade,  we  are  aware  ol 
the  many  objections  that  will,  at  first  sight,  be  brought  against 
them;  but  we  are  induced  to  believe,  that  a£ter  an  impartial  anA 
unprejudiced  examination  of  them,  their  superiority  over  those 
of  the  old  plan,  will  be  readily  acknowledged;  in  short,  they 
have  met  the  decided  approbation  of  all  practical  printers,  to 
whom  they  have  been  submitted,  who  have  expressed  their 
entire  willingness  to  adopt  them. 

We  shall  now  endeavor  to  point  out  some  of  the  advantages, 
on  which  our  claims  to  a  preference,  are  founded. 

The  principal  improvement  at  which  we  have  aimed,  is  that 
of  bringing  all  the  spaces  immediately  under  the  hand,  without 
removing  the  a,  t,  and  other  letters,  but  half  a  box  from  their 
original  places,  or  curtailing  the  capacity  of  any  of  the  principal 
boxes.  The  advantage  gained  by  this  arrangement  must  be 
obvious,  when  it  is  considered,  that  in  spacing  out  a  line,  the 
nand  is  frequently  extended  to  the  remotest  parts  of  the  case,  to 
the  n  quadrat  and  thin  space  boxes,  causing  much  unnecessary 
delay  in  the  progress  of  composition;  for  it  not  unfrequently 
occurs,  that  the  time  occupied  in  spacing  out  a  line,  is  greater 
than  that  employed  in  composing  it;  nor  is  this  immense  loss  of 
time  confined  to  composing  alone,  for  in  distributing,  the  thin* 
spaces  almost  invariably  accompany  the  thick,  which  in  the  old 
plan,  must  be  dropped  some  distance  from  each  other,  conse- 
quently, much  time  and  labor  is  saved  by  the  proximity  of  their 
situation.  It  has  been  satisfactorily  ascertained,  by  counting  the 
n  quadrats  and  thin  spaces  in  1000  m's  of  matter,  that  the 
distance  which  the  hand  has  to  traverse  unnecessarily,  to  reach 
those  sorts  in  their  old  position,  is  600  feet  in  1000  m's,  or  in 
the  same  ratio,  4,200  feet  in  a  day's  work  of  7000  m's,  and  the 
same  distance  again  traversed  over  in  distributing. 


TYPOGRAPHY.  101 

It  will  be  perceived  by  referring  to  the  schemes  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  that,  we  have  not  only  brought  the  spaces  together, 
but  also  the  points.,  figures,  and  double  letters,  and  by  curtailing 
the  ^  and  !  boxes,  have  brought  all  the  double  letters  into  the 
lower  ease;  these  alterations.,  though  seemingly  of  minor  im- 
portance, nevertheless  render  the  position  of  those  sorts  more 
consistent  in  their  arrangement. 

We  have  thought  it  quite  unnecessary  to  enter  into  a  minute 
detail  respecting  the  particular  position  which  each  letter 
occupies,  believing  that  the  members  of  the  profession  generally, 
are  possessed  of  sufficient  penetration  to  discover  why  those 
letters  most  used,  are  placed  nearest  the  hand. 

In  the  arrangement  of  our  upper  case,  we  also  beg  leave  to 
differ  from  the  customary  plan,  by  transposing  the  capitals  and 
small  capitals,  and  by  introducing  the  J  and  U  or  V3  in  their 
regular  order  in  the  alphabet,  with  some  few  alterations  of  little 
consequence.  Our  reason  for  transposing  the  capitals  and  small 
capitals,  must  be  apparent  to  every  practical  printer,  upon  a 
moment's  reflection,  their  old  position  requiring  one  of  the  most 
awkward  movements  of  the  body,  to  reach  them.  We  can  see 
no  reason  why  the  J  and  U  or  F",  should  not  occupy  their 
respective  situations  in  the  alphabet,  since  their  admission  into 
general  use.  This  arrangement  would  prevent  considerable 
confusion  in  regard  to  the  position  of  the  U"  and  F",  as  some 
offices  leave  out  the  U,  and  others  the  F,  consequently,  those 
boxes  are  frequently  found  to  contain  a- mixture  of  both  letters. 

Our  object  in  offering  these  few  remarks,  is  more  particularly 
to  call  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  lower  case,  as  many 
printers  consider  the  arrangement  of  an  upper  case  as  a  matter 
of  but  little  importance;  to  such,  we  would  only  recommend  the 
lower  case,  believing  that  the  alterations  are  of  .sufficient  conse- 
quence to  receive  their  notice. 


LAYING  OF  CASES. 

THIS  process  consists  in  filling  the  cases  with  the  respective  sorts 
contained  in  a  new  fount  of  letter. 

After  having  ascertained  the  weight  of  the  fount,  and  pro- 
vided ourselves  with  a  sufficient  number  of  cases,  (say  one  pair 


102  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

of  cases  to  about  every  fifty  or  sixty  Ibs.  of  letter,)  and  a  fount 
case,  we  begin  to  lay  the  letter,  filling  each  box  moderately  with 
its  proper  sort;  after  which  we  deposit  the  remainder  in  the 
tount  case,  which  is  put  in  some  convenient  place  till  wanted. 

As  new  letter  is  very  liable  to  stick,  after  having  been  wetted, 
it  would  be  advisable  to  sprinkle  it  with  a  little  strong  soap 
water,  which  would  greatly  tend  to  prevent  such  unpleasant 
consequences. 


DISTRIBUTING. 

DISTRIBUTING,  or  conveying  the  different  sorts  of  letter  to  their 
respective  compartments,  is  generally  the  first  of  a  compositor's 
practical  exercise ;  though  it  would  be  found  more  advantageous 
both  to  employer  and  employed,  were  this  custom  sometimes 
reversed,  and  composing  made  antecedent  to  distributing,  which 
depends  upon  a  perfect  knowledge  of  what  is  contained  in  each 
of  the  different  boxes  in  a  pair  of  cases.  But  as  the  arrange- 
ment of  sorts  differ,  in  some  degree,  in  almost  every  printing- 
office,  it  follows,  that  such  irregularities  must  have  their  effects 
accordingly;  of  which  we  do  not  want  for  instances.  The  first 
that  offers  itself  to  our  observation,  is  the  loss  which  a  composi- 
tor sustains  ever^time  he  changes  his  place  of  work;  for,  being 
unacquainted  with  the  situation  of  each  sort,  he  is  hindered,  for 
some  time,  in  his  quick  and  ready  way  of  distributing,  which 
might  be  easily  prevented,  were  establishers  of  new  houses  to 
follow  one  uniform  method. 

Other  evils  result  from  this  want  of  uniformity,  which,  as  we 
have  before  observed,  equally  affect  both  the  employer  and  the 
employed.  Some  compositors,  rather  than  charge  their  memory 
with  the  different  situations  of  particular  sorts,  transpose  them 
into  such  boxes  as  contained  them  at  their  last  place  of  work, 
consequently  the  situation  of  the  letters,  in  that  Roman  case,  at 
least,  is  destroyed,  and  the  transposed  sorts  not  being  replaced, 
the  boxes  become  receptacles  for  pi,  for  the  right  sorts  being 
distributed  at  the  top,  the  undermost  are  rendered  useless,  because 
they  are  not  expected  to  lodge  in  quarters  that  were  not  assigned 
them;  therefore,  if  the  hidden  sorts  happen  to  run  short,  they 
must  be  re-cast. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  103 

It  would  be  the  means  of  preserving  a  clean  pair  of  cases 
were  they  filled  and  provided  with  letter  for  a  new  compositor 
to  begin  his  work  upon,  that  by  composing  first,  he  might 
become  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  his  boxes,,  and  be  better 
prepared  for  distribution ;  but  as  few  compositors  feel  inclined 
to  quit  the  beaten  track,  and  as  a  difficulty  would  occur  in 
compelling  them  to  leave  the  cases  as  they  found  them,  or  if 
they  did  leave  them  full  of  letter,  might  distribute  it  carelessly, 
knowing  they  would  not  have  to  set  it  out  again,,  the  evil  might 
be  still  far  from  being  remedied. 

To  malte  a  young  apprentice  the  sooner  fit  for  distributing,  he 
should  be  informed  that  there  are  some  letters  that  resemble 
others,  and  at  the  same  time  be  shown  how  to  distinguish  one 
from  another;  viz.  b  from  q,  d  fromjp,  I  from  /,  n  from  u,  &,c. 
And  in  order  to  prove  whether  he  has  acquired  a  perfect  know- 
ledge of  the  distinction  between  such  letters  as  have  a  similarity 
to  each  other,  let  the  young  compositor  distribute  a  handful  of 
broken  matter  into  an  empty  case,  and  if,  upon  examination, 
the  before  mentioned  sorts  are  found  in  their  proper  boxes,  he 
may  be  trusted  to  distribute  for  himself.  But  before  he  proceeds, 
he  should  be  cautioned  not  to  take  up  too  much  matter  at  a  time, 
for,  should  he  break  his  handful,  he  will  have  the  less  pi  to 
clear.  Even  to  those  who  are  not  likely  often  to  meet  with  this 
accident,  the  caution  is  not  unnecessary,  as  too  great  a  weight 
weakens  the  wrist,  and  it  is  a  mistaken  notion  that  it  saves  time, 
for  if  one  handful  falls  into  the  case,  it  will  be  more  than  equi- 
valent to  the  time  gained. 

In  taking  up  a  handful,  the  head  of  the  page  should  be  towards 
the  distributor,  which  prevents  the  trouble  as  well  as  danger  of 
turning  it  round,  in  order  to  have  the  nick  uppermost.  So  much 
matter  only  should  be  taken  at  a  time,  as  can  be  conveniently 
held  in  the  left  hand,  and  not  to  be  higher  than  the  thumb, 
which  guards  the  ends  of  the  lines  from  falling. 

He  should  be  careful  not  to  throw  the  letters  into  the  case 
with  their  face  downwards,  as  it  batters  them ;  neither  should  he 
distribute  his  case  too  full,  for  it  invariably  creates  pi. 

He  should  not  be  impatient  to  acquire  a  quick  method  at  first; 
his  principal  study  should  be  propriety,  though  his  progress  be 


104  TYPOGRAPH1A. 

slow;  that  attained,  expedition  will  follow  from  practice,  and  he 
will  find  his  advantage  in  composing  from  a  clean  case,  though 
he  may  be  longer  in  distributing  it.  A  man  loses  double  the 
time  in  correcting,  that  he  imagines  he  saves  from  quick  distri- 
bution. 

With  many  compositors  much  time  is  unnecessarily  lost  in 
looking  at  the  word  before  they  distribute  it.  By  proper  attention , 
the  learner  may  avoid  this,  and  become,  without  the  appearance 
of  hurry,  an  expeditious  as  well  as  a  clean  distributor.  To 
attain  which,  we  would  recommend  him  never  to  take  more 
letters  between  the  fingers  than  he  can  conveniently  hold,  and 
if  possible,  always  to  take  an  entire  word ;  to  keep  his  handful 
on  an  inclining  position,  so 'that  the  face  of  the  letter  may  come 
more  immediately  under  his  eye.  By  proper  attention  and 
practice  he  will  become  so  completely  acquainted  with  the 
beard  or  shoulder  of  the  type,  as  to  recognize  the  word  he  takes 
from  his  handful,  with  the  cursory  view  he  may  have  of  it 
while  in  the  act  of  lifting. 

It  is  to  this  method  that  so  many  in  the  business  are  indebted 
for  their  expedition  and  cleanness  in  distribution;  though  to  an 
observer  the  movements  of  their  hands  appear  but  slow.  It  is 
not  to  velocity  of  movement  that  compositors  are  indebted  for 
their  expedition,  either  in  composing  or  distributing — it  is  to 
system,  without  which  their  attempts  may  have  the  appearance 
of  expedition,  but  produce  only  fatigue  from  anxiety  and  false 
motion.  Therefore,  to  system  we  would  particularly  call  their 
attention,  and  as  clean  distribution  produces  clean  composition, 
which  not  only  saves  time  at  the  stone,  but  acquires  them  a 
respectable  name,  they  can  not  be  too  attentive  to  that  part  of 
their  business. 

Another  material  point,  before  distributing,  is  the  well  laying 
up  of  the  form.  In  this  particular  many  compositors  are 
shamefully  remiss,  and  from  this  negligence  arise  inconve- 
niences that  lose  more  time  than  if  they  had  taken  the  first 
trouble,  besides  the  unpleasantness  of  working  with  dirty  letter. 

The  letter-board  should  always  be  kept  clean,  and  the  bottom 
as  well  as  the  face  of  the  form  well  washed  before  it  is  laid  on 
the  board  and  unlocked,  for  if  any  of  the  dirt  remain  from  the 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  105 

lie  brush  after  it  is  unlocked,  it  will  sink  into  the  matter  instead 
of  running  off.  This  precaution  taken,  the  pages  should  be 
well  opened,  and  the  whole  form  washed  till  the  water  appears 
to  run  from  it  in  a  clean  state.  A  form  can  not  be  well  laid  up 
ivithout  plenty  of  water.  If  the  form  appears  particularly  dirty, 
it  is  best  to  lock  it  up  again?  which  works  out  the  filthy  then 
rinse  the  bottom  of  it,  and  proceed  as  before. 

Many  compositors  keep  a  piece  of  alum  in  their  cases,  in 
order  to  contract  the  grain  of  the  skin  of  their  ringers  when 
distributing  slippery  letter;  this  is  a  declaration  of  their  want  of 
cleanliness,  for  had  they  washed  their  letter  properly,  it  would 
not  be  slippery. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  dry  the  letter  at  the  fire  after 
distributing;  it  is  particularly  recommended  not  to  use  the  letter 
after  it  is  dried  in  this  way,  until  it  is  perfectly  cold,  as  very 
pernicious  effects  arise  from  the  antimony,  which  the  heat  of 
the  fire  brings  into  action,  when  joined  to  the  tender  particles  of 
the  skin;  nor  to  stand  near  the  case,  either  while  at  the  fire,  of 
until  completely  cool.  The  noxious  vapor  which  arises  is  so 
easy  to  be  perceived  that  it  must  alone  be  sufficient  warning  of 
the  effects:  it  is  the  only  part  of  the  business  that  has  any  thing 
injurious  to  health,  and  being  entirely  at  the  choice  of  the 
compositor,  he,  for  his  own  sake,  ought  always  to  avoid  it  as  a 
pestilence,  which  will  equally  effect  his  respiration  and  his 
sinews,  by  the  former  instantly  affecting  his  lungs,  and  the 
latter  causing  contractions  of  the  fingers.  It  is  always  better, 
where  it  can  be  conveniently  managed,  to  distribute  at  night,  or 
before  meals,  so  that  the  letter  may  dry  without  artificial  heat. 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  COMPOSING. 

COMPOSING  is  a  term  which  includes  several  exercises,  as  well 
of  the  mind  as  the  body;  for  when  we  are  said  to  compose,  we 
are  at  the  same  time  engaged  in  reading  and  spelling  what  we 
are  composing,  as  well  as  in  taking  care  to  space  and  to  justify 
our  matter.  But  that  we  may  observe  some  method  in  our 
remarks,  we  will  begin  with  what  immediately  precedes  the 
composition. 


106  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

When  the  copy  of  a  work  is  put  into  the  hands  of  the  com- 
positor, ne  should  receive  directions  respecting  the  width  and 
length  of  the  page ;  whether  it  is  to  be  leaded,  and  with  white 
lines  between  the  breaks;  and  whether  any  particular  method 
is  to  be  followed  in  the  punctuation  and  in  the  adoption  of 
capitals.  These  instructions  being  given,  the  compositor  will 
make  his  measure  to  the  number  of  m's  directed',  which  is  done 
by  laying  them  flat-ways  in  the  composing  stick,  and  then 
screwing  it  up,  not  too  tight,  as  it  is  apt  to  strain  it,  nor  so  slack 
as  to  allow  the  measure  to  give.  He  then  fits  a  setting-rule  to 
the  measure,  and  his  case  being  supplied  with  letter,  he  is  pre- 
pared for  composing. 

If  the  copy  he  is  to  begin  on  be  a  re-print,  he  will  observe 
whether  there  be  any  difference  between  the  type  he  is  about  to 
use  and  the  copy,  so  that  his  spacing  may  not  be  affected, 
against  which  he  must  take  the  necessary  precautions  at  the 
time,  by  widening  or  lessening  his  measure,  if  solid  matter,  or 
driving  out  or  getting  in  each  paragraph,  if  leaded.*  He  should 
select  a  close  spaced  line  from  the  copy,  which  will  at  once 
prove  if  there  be  any  variation. 

Being  now  provided  with  a  case  of  letter,  and  all  the  requisites 
for  composing,  we  examine  the  copy,  to  ascertain  if  it  be  written 
fair  and  legible,  and  spelled  and  pointed  according  to  the  modern 
way.  Upon  this  subject  Smith  thus  remarks : — 

"  If  therefore  it  happens  that  the  copy  turns  out  to  our  liking, 
we  wish  the  work  to  last  long;  whereas  if  it  proves  otherwise, 
we  are  glad  to  have  done  with  it,  especially  if  the  author  should 
chance  to  be  a  humorous  gentleman,  and  unacquainted  with  the 
nature  of  printing;  for  then  a  compositor  is  obliged  to  conform 
to  the  fancy  of  his  author,  and  sometimes  to  huddle  his  work  up 
in  such  a  manner  as  exposes  both  him  and  his  employer; 
whereas  the  gentleman  that  pursues  the  elaboration  of  his  plan, 
and  leaves  the  gracing  of  his  work  to  the  judgment  of  the 
printer,  seldom  finds  room  to  be  dissatisfied  upon  that  score. 

"  By  the  laws  of  printing,  indeed,  a  compositor  should  abide 
by  his  copy,  and  not  vary  from  it,  that  he  may  clear  himself,  in 
case  he  should  be  charged  with  having  made  a  fault.  But  this 
good  law  is  now  looked  upon  as  obsolete,  and  most  authors 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  107 

expect  the  printer  to  spell,  point,  and  digest  their  copy,  that  it 
may  be  intelligible  and  significant  to  the  reader;  which  is  what 
a  compositor  and  the  corrector  jointly  have  regard  to,  in  works 
of  their  own  language,  else  many  good  books  would  be  laid 
aside,  because  it  would  require  as  mucji  patience  to  read  them, 
as  books  did  when  no  points  or  notations  were  used;  and  when 
nothing  but  a  close  attention  to  the  sense  made  the  subject 
intelligible.77 

Having  taken  particular  notice  of  the  state  of  the  copy,  and 
received  directions  respecting  the  method  to  be  adopted  in  the 
execution  of  it,  he  then  commences  his  work.  It  will  not  be 
improper  to  point  out  in  this  place,  what  we  have  before  ob- 
served, that  an  ill  habit  once  acquired,  is  with  great  difficulty 
shaken  off — truly  ludicrous  are  the  attitudes  and  motions 
exhibited  by  some  compositors,  while  performing  the  operation 
of  composing;  such  as  nodding  the  head,  agitating  the  body, 
throwing  out  the  arm,  ticking  the  letter  against  the  case  or  the 
setting-rule,  with  numerous  other  false  movements,  which  not 
only  lose  time,  but  fatigue  the  mind  and  exhaust  the  body.  The 
swift  movement  of  the  hand  is  not  always  a  just  criterion  of  the 
quick  progress  of  a  compositor.  In  proof  of  which,  the  following 
anecdote  is  given : — 

ff  A  gentleman,  some  few  years  back,  not  a  professed  printer, 
though  the  proprietor  of  an  extensive  concern,  gave  orders  to  his 
overseer  to  discharge  a  compositor  who  had  not  the  appearance 
of  moving  his  arm  so  quick  as  others  in  the  office  with  him; 
but  his  overseer  was  able  to  convince  him  that  this  man  was  not 
only  the  neatest,  but  the  most  expeditious,  and  consequent!}"  the 
most  valuable  man  in  his  employ." 

The(  left  hand,  which  contains  the  composing  stick,  should 
always  follow  the  right,  which  takes  up  the  letters.  If  the 
former  be  kept  stationary,  considerable  time  is  lost  in  bringing 
each  letter  to  the  stick,  because  the  latter  would,  consequently, 
have  to  traverse  a  much  greater  space  than  is  necessary:  the 
eye  should  instantly  precede  the  hand,  being  steadily  fixed  upon 
that  particular  letter,  which  lies  with  the  nick  from  you,  which 
should  be  taken  up  by  the  upper  part;  this  would  effectually 
prevent  any  false  motion,  and  preclude  the  necessity  of  turning 
10 


108  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

the  letters  when  in  the  hand.  A  sentence  of  the  copy  should  be 
taken,  if  possible,  at  one  time,  and  while  patting  in  the  point 
and  space  which  concludes  the  sentence,  the  eye  is  at  full  liberty 
to  revert  again  to  the  copy,  for  a  fresh  one.  It  is  to  perfection 
in  this  particular,  that  those  compositors  who  are  so  much 
admired  in  the  profession,  are  indebted  for  their  swiftness. 
The  time  thus  gained  is  very  considerable,  without  the  least 
appearance  of  bustle  or  fatigue.  By  their  taking  a  sentence  into 
the  memory  at  one  time,  they  preserve  the  connexion  of  the 
subject,  which  renders  the  punctuation  less  difficult. 

The  compositor,  from  habit,  becomes  so  well  acquainted  with 
the  peculiar  feel  of  each  type,  that  he  can  generally  detect  a 
wrong  letter  without  looking  at  the  face.  Those  who  are 
careful  in  their  distribution,  find  the  advantage  of  it  in  compo- 
sition. What  greater  disgrace  can  be  attached  to  a  compositor, 
than  being  denominated  a  foul  or  slovenly  workman  ?  To  avoid 
this  stigma,  he  should  use  his  earnest  endeavor;  it  would  even 
be  better  that  he  should  read  every  line  as  he  composed  it,  than 
to  lose  so  much  of  his  time  at  the  stone,  independent  of  the 
disgrace  just  mentioned.  If  he  accustom  himself  to  glance  his 
eye  over  each  line,  as  he  justifies  it,  he  will  find  it  turn  greatly 
to  his  account,  without  the  least  impediment  to  his  progress. 

Uniformity  in  spacing,  unquestionably,  is  a  most  important 
part  of  the  compositor's  occupation;  this  requires  both  care  and 
judgment,  and,  therefore,  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed 
upon  the  mind  of  the  young  beginner.  Close  spacing  is  equally 
unpleasant  to  the  sight  as  wide  spacing,  and  ought  never  to  be 
permitted,  except  in  very  narrow  measures;  and  frequently, 
even  then,  with  care,  it  might  partly  be  prevented.  What  is 
commonly  called  the  composing  space,  is  the  best  and  proper 
separation  between  each  word ;  though  this  rule  cannot  always 
be  adhered  to  in  narrow  measures,  when  large  type  is  used.  It 
is  not  merely  necessary  to  have  a  line  here  and  there  uniformly 
spaced — a  careful  compositor  evinces  an  anxiety  to  give  every 
page  that  uniformity  of  appearance,  in  which  consists  one  of  its 
chiefest  excellencies.  Careless  and  foul  compositors  will  never 
preserve  this  most  desirable  uniformity ;  because,  when  their 
proof  is  crowded  with  corrections,  the  utmost  possible  care  in 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  109 

rectifying  those  blunders,,  will  not  make  the  spacing  regular. 
Therefore,,  we  wish  to  impress  this  important  maxim  upon  the 
mind  of  the  young  beginner:  that  it  is  better  to  do  little,  and  be 
determined  to  do  that  little  well,  than  to  be  anxious  to  put 
together  a  great  number  of  letters,  without  any  regard  to  accu- 
racy and  uniformity.  Authors,  certainly,  should  send  their  copy 
finally  corrected  to  the  press;  for  when  alterations  and  additions 
are  made  in  the  proof  sheet,  it  becomes  difficult,  where  there  are 
few  paragraphs,  to  make  the  spacing  equal. 

In  correcting,  many  compositors  do  not  over-run  the  matter, 
through  the  stick,  as  they  ought  to  do,  but  prefer  doing  it  on  the 
stone,  in  which  case  they  not  unfrequently  hair  space,  or  treble 
space,  in  order  either  to  get  in  or  drive  out  a  word;  when,  by 
over-running  a  line  or  two  forward  or  backward,  they  would 
not  only  preserve  uniformity,  but  also  save  considerable  labor. 

Jn  a  late  work  upon  this  subject,  we  find  a  mixture  of  all  the 
spaces  (except  the  hair  space  and  n  quadrat)  strongly  recom- 
mended, in  which  it  is  urged  that  it  would  expedite  the 
compositor  in  his  justification — in  this  instance  we  must  differ, 
and  shall  ever  contend  against  any  advantage  being  derived  from 
so  slovenly  a  practice.  For  how  many  compositors  are  there, 
who  would,  upon  finding  their  line  to  justify  without  an  altera- 
tion of  the  spaces,  take  the  trouble  to  examine  whether  the.  thin 
spaces  were  not  between  perpendicular  and  the  thick  ones 
between  sloping  letters;  which  would  be  in  direct  violation  of 
the  only  true  rule  for  even  spacing — and  should  there  be  any 
that  would  even  condescend  to  take  that  trouble,  what  advantage 
would  they  gain  by  mixing  their  spaces  in  distributing  and 
assorting  them  from  their  stick  while  composing? 

Where  a  line  is  even  spaced,  and  yet  requires  justification, 
the  additional  spaces  should  be  put  between  those  words  in  the 
line  where  it  will  be  least  observable,  viz.  a  d  and  an  h  being 
perpendicular  letters,  will  admit  an  addition,  but  not  more  than 
a  middle  and  thin  space  to  a  thick  spaced  line ;  or,  after  a  kerned 
letter,  the  beak  of  which  may  bear  upon  the  top  of  an  ascending 
letter,  as  the/ and  the  h,  i,  I,  &c.,  but  not  always  after  a  kerned 
letter,  as  the  /  and  the  w,  where  the  distance  would  in  some 
cases  be  too  conspicuous 


110  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

The  same  rule  should  be  observed  where  it  may  be  necessary 
to  reduce  the  spacing  of  a  line ;  less  space  being  required  after 
a  sloping  letter  than  a  perpendicular  one,  the  comma  requires 
only  a  thick  space,  but  the  other  points  should  have  a  hail 
space  before,  and  an  n  quadrat  after  them,  except  the  full  point^ 
which  should  have  an  m  quadrat,  as  terminating  a  sentence. 
Still  this  rule  will  not  always  hold  good,  it  must  depend  entirely 
upon  circumstances,  for,  should  it  be  necessary  to  reduce  the 
spacing,  those  spaces  after  the  points  must  also  be  altered  in  the 
same  proportion.  Spaces  are  now  cast  to  such  regular  grada- 
tions, that  the  compositor  can  urge  no  reasonable  excuse  either 
for  bad  justification  o-r  improper  spacing. 

Having  made  these  preliminary  and  most  essential  remarks, 
we  shall  now  proceed : — Should  the  length  of  the  page  be  left 
to  the  compositor's  discretion,  he  then  sets  such  a  number  of 
lines  as  he  conceives  to  be  a  proportioned  page,  this  is  generally 
taken  at  nearly  double  the  width;  he  next  puts  in  the  head  and 
direction  (if  any,)  and  cuts  an  exact  guage  as  follows  : — after 
having  marked  off  the  length  of  the  page,  we  then,  with  a  sharp 
penknife,  make  a  light  mark  at  the  bottom  of  each  line,  com- 
mencing after  the  first:  these  marks  are  of  the  greatest  service 
to  a  neat  compositor,  he  is  thereby  enabled  to  make  up  his  work 
with  greater  certainty  and  less  trouble,  particularly  when  the 
work  consists  of  light  matter,  heads,  sub-heads,  quotations,  &c. 
This  is  done  before  he  makes  up  the  first  page,  as  that  will  vary 
according  to  the  different  founts  which  are  necessarily  introduced. 

Head  lines  are  generally  set  in  small  capitals  of  the  same 
fount,  or  in  italic,  and  sometimes  in  capitals.  Capitals  of  letter 
about  three  sizes  smaller  than  the  body  of  the  work,  with  folios 
of  a  proportionable  size,  have  a  much  neater  appearance  than 
either  of  the  foregoing.  If  only  folios  are  placed  at  the  top  of 
the  page,  it  is  better  to  make  use  of  figures  of  rather  a  bold 
appearance,  without  parentheses  or  brackets. 

Direction-words  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  are  not  now  gene- 
rally used:  the  omission  of  them  does  not  injure  the  appearance 
of  the  work,  but  saves  time  and  expense  where  overrunning 
occurs  in  the  proof;  nevertheless,  in  making  up  the  page  it  is 
necessary  to  substitute  a  white  line  for  the  signature,  volume,  &c. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  Ill 

Much  trouble  and  loss  of  time  was  formerly  experienced  by 
compositors,,  in  making  up  the  first  page  of  a  work,,  when  they 
had  to  introduce  head-pieces  and  facs,  formed  with  flowers  of 
different  bodies.  This  taste  for  flowery  decorations  is  now 
exploded,,  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  set  the  title  of  the  work  in 
a  neat  type.  The  setting  of  titles  must  depend  on  the  fancy  and 
ingenuity  of  the  compositor,  and.  the  fashion  of  the  day,  (which 
varies  materially  from  year  to  year,)  under  general  directions 
from  the  employer,  as  no  fixed  or  certain  rule  can  be  laid  down 
for  this  purpose. 

The  compositor  will  also  receive  directions,  when  there  are 
notes,  what  letter  they  are  to  be  set  in.  The  usual  rule  is  for 
the  notes  to  be  two  sizes  less  than  the  text  of  the  work:  thus, 
to  Pica  work,  Long  Primer;  Small  Pica,  Bourgeois;  Long 
Primer,  Brevier.  Side  notes  are  usually  smaller  in  proportion; 
and  when  the  work  is  of  the  nature  of  bibles,  law-books,  &c.,  in 
which  the  side  notes  or  references,  frequently  drive  down  more 
than  the  lines  of  the  text  to  which  they  refer,  the  expedient  of 
cut-in -notes  must  be  resorted  to.  This  is  a  difficult  part  of  a 
compositor's  business,  and  requires  much  skill  and  patience  to 
adjust  all  parts,  so  that  every  line  of  note  and  text  may  have 
proper  and  equal  bearing.  The  reglet,  scale  board,  or  lead, 
which  is  placed  between  the  lines  of  matter  and  the  side-note 
must  be  cut  with  as  much  nicety  as  possible  to  the  length  of  the 
text,  as  far  as  where  the  note  is  to  run  under;  and  having 
accurately  adjusted,  by  means  of  the  quotations  and  justifiers, 
the  situation  of  the  first  line  of  the  note,  such  lead  or  scaleboard, 
is  added  to  the  text  as  will  make  it  precisely  correspond  in  depth 
with  the  lines  of  note  that  stand  on  the  side  before  turning:  the 
remainder  of  the  note  is  then  set  in  a  long  measure,  to  corres- 
pond in  width  with  the  text,  reglet,  and  side-note;  and  the  page 
is  made  up  with  note,  or  the  text  begun  again  after  the  note  is 
finished.  In  bibles  with  notes  and  annotations,  in  law  Looks, 
some  classics,  and  other  works,  it  frequently  happens  that  a 
page  exhibits  several  of  these  alternate  frame-works  of  note  and 
text,  which,  if  done  well,  display  a  workman's  skill  to  the  best 
advantage;  but  if  done  at  all  ill,  nothing  exhibits  a  more  vile 
appearance. 

10* 


112  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

On  beginning  a  work,  the  compositor  should  be  informed 
what  number  of  volumes  it  is  intended  to  be  comprised  in,,  in 
order  that  he  may  place  the  number  of  the  volume  in  the  left 
hand  corner  of  the  signature  line,  in  the  first  page  of  every  sheet. 
The  above  and  the  signature  are  generally  put  in  small  capitals; 
and  where  they  extend  to  more  than  one  alphabet,  the  second 
one  should  begin,  2.\,  SB,  and  so  on.  In  our  opinion  the  sig- 
nature is  much  better  both  in  appearance,  and  for  collating, 
when  placed  within  about  six  m's  from  the  end  of  the  line,  than 
in  the  centre,  according  to  the  old  custom. 

The  title,  preface,  &c.,  of  a  volume  is  always  left  till  the  body 
of  the  work  is  finished,  as  many  circumstances  may  arise  in  the 
course  of  its  progress  through  the  press,  which  may  induce  the 
author  to  alter  his  original  preface,  date,  Stc.  or  the  work  may 
conclude  in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  their  being  brought  in 
at  the  end,  in  order  to  complete  a  sheet,  which  may  save  both 
paper  and  press  work.  For  this  reason  it  is  customary  to  begin 
the  first  sheet  of  every  work  with  signature  B,  leaving  A  for  the 
title  sheet.  To  a  sheet  of  octavo,  two  signatures  only  are  neces- 
sary, which  are  placed  to  the  first  and  third  pages;  to  a  sheet 
of  twelves  three  signatures,  to  the  first,  third  and  ninth  pages, 
thus,  B,  s2,  B3. 

In  works  printed  in  half  sheets,  figures  are  generally  used 
instead  of  letters.  This  plan  is  considered  to  cause  less  confu- 
sion Avith  the  binder,  particularly  in  works  of  five  or  six 
hundred  pages. 

Instead  of  beginning  the  work  with  a  two-line  letter,  accord-  • 
ing  to  the  old  custom,  capital  letters  have  a  much  neater 
appearance;  the  remainder  of  the  word  may  be  put  either  in 
capitals  or  small  capitals,  the  latter  is  most  preferable. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  second  page,  and  set  the  running 
title  in  a  neat  letter  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  page;  but 
this  must  be  governed  by  the  quantity  of  matter  necessary  to  be 
introduced  at  the  head  of  the  page.  A  full  line,  as  a  running 
title,  has  a  very  clumsy  appearance,  and  should,  if  possible,  be 
avoided.  To  a  solid  page,  two  leads  make  the  usual  space  after 
the  head ;  to  a  single  leaded  page,  three  leads  or  a  Long  Primer 
white;  and  to  a  double  leaded  page,  a  Pica  white. 


TYPOGUAPHIA.  113 

It  has  long  been,  and  still  is  a  practice  too  prevalent  among 
compositors,  to  drive  out  a  word  at  the  close  of  a  paragraph,  or 
even  to  divide  it,  in  order  to  reap  the  advantage  of  a  break  line. 
Part  of  a  word,  or  a  complete  word  in  a  break  line,  if  it  contain 
no  more  than  three  or  four  letters,  is  improper.  It  should  be 
the  business  of  the  proof-reader,  at  all  times,  to  notice  this 
encroachment.  The  last  line  of  a  paragraph  should  not  on  any 
account  begin  a  page,  neither  should  the  first  line  of  a  paragraph 
come  at  the  bottom  of  a  page,  if  the  work  has  white  lines 
between  the  breaks.  To  obviate  which,  the  compositor  makes 
his  page  either  long  or  short,  as  most  convenient,  always  taking 
care  that  the  corresponding  pages  back,  by  which  means  the 
long  or  short  appearance  of  the  page  escapes  observation. 

If  the  work  is  very  open,  consisting  of  heads,  whites,  &c.  the 
compositor  must  be  particularly  attentive  to  their  depth;  so  that 
though  the  white  may  be  composed  of  different  sized  quadrats, 
yet  that  their  ultimate  depth  shall  be  equal  to  the  regular  body  of 
the  type  the  work  is  done  in;  for  unless  care  is  taken  in  this 
particular,  the  register  of  the  work  must  be  incomplete.  The 
pressman  cannot  make  the  lines  back  if  the  compositor  is  not 
careful  in  making  up  his  matter. 

The  first  line  of  a  new  paragraph  is  indented  an  m  quadrat, 
of  whatever  sized  letter  the  work  may  be ;  though  we  prefer  an 
m  and  an  n  in  small  measures,  and  two  or  even  three  m?s  when 
the  measure  runs  very  long,  by  ivhich  means  the  paragraph  is 
more  strongly  marked;  the  mere  indention  of  an  m  being 
scarcely  perceptible  in  a  long  line.  Authors  vary  materially  in 
the  mode  of  making  paragraphs;  some  carry  the  argument  of  a 
position  to  a  great  length,  before  they  relieve  the  attention  of  the 
reader;  while  others  break  off  at  almost  every  place  that  will 
admit  only  of  a  full  point.  But  in  this  case  Ave  follow  the 
author's  plan,  unless,  upon  particular  occasions,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  multiply  or  reduce  the  breaks  in  the  copy,  if  it  can 
be  done  with  propriety,  in  order  to  make  the  work  look  uniform. 
Authors  should  always  make  the  beginning  of  a*  new  paragraph 
conspicuous  to  the  compositor,  by  indenting  the  first  line  of  it 
far  enough  to  distinguish  it  from  the  preceding  line,  in  case  it 
should  be  quite  full. 


114  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

Many  hints,  in  addition  to  what  have  already  been  dropped, 
relative  to  composing,  might  be  added  for  the  information  of 
learners,  were  we  not  persuaded  that  practice,  and  a  close 
attention  to  the  mode  of  doing  business  by  good  workmen,  will 
be  of  more  service  to  them  than  a  multiplicity  of  rules.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  person  under  whose  tuition  an  apprentice  is 
placed,  to  discharge  that  trust  with  fidelity.  The  youth's  future 
prospects  in  life,  depend  in  a  great  measure  on  the  principles  on 
which  his  first  instructions  are  formed;  and  it  is  the  duly  of 
every  man  to  correct  those  habits  in  youth  which  may  be  im- 
proper, whether  arising  from  carelessness  or  any  other  cause. 
When  a  youth  makes  choice  of  a  profession,  and  is  aware  that 
his  future  support  and  prospects  in  life  must  depend  on  a  cor- 
rect knowledge  of  that  profession,  he  should  be  anxious  to  attain 
that  knowledge;  but  to  withhold  it  from  him,  or  allow  the 
practice  of  improper  habits,  is,  in  his  preceptor,  a  neglect 
highly  reprehensible,  and  unjust. 

After  the  body  of  the  volume  is  completed,  the  contents 
sometimes  follow  next,  though  they  belong  more  properly  to 
the  beginning  of  the  work;  and  for  this  reason  we  shall  defer 
speaking  of  them  here,  but  introduce  them  in  their  proper  place. 
The  index  is  generally  placed  at  the  end  of  the  volume,,  and  set 
in  letter  two  sizes  less  than  that  of  the  work;  it  is  always  begun 
upon  an  uneven  page.  Running  titles  may  be  set  to  an  index, 
but  folios  are  seldom  put  to  them,  unless  it  is  to  recommend  the 
book  for  its  extraordinary  number  of  pages;  for  as  an  index 
does  not  refer  to  its  own  matter  by  figures,  they  are  needless  in 
this  case.  The  signatures,  however,  are  always  carried  on 
regularly  to  the  last  whole,  or  half  sheet  of  the  work. 

It  was  formerly  the  plan  to  set  the  subject  word  of  each 
article  in  Italic,  and  all  the  rest  in  Roman,  indenting  all  the 
matter  an  m  quadrat  that  makes  above  one  line,  what  is  techni- 
cally termed — to  run  out  and  indent;  but  the  Italic  is  now  in  a 
great  measure  exploded,  it  being  attended  with  extra  trouble, 
and  at  the  same  time  destroys  the  uniformity  of  the  page. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  subject  words  are  ranged 
alphabetically,  as  it  is  not  expected  that  the  compositor  will 
transpose  his  matter  afterwards,  without  being  paid  for  it. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  115 

Where  figures  have  a  regular  succession,  a  comma  is  put 
after  each  folio;  and  where  their  order  breaks  off,  a  full  point 
is  used.  Thus,  for  example,  after  6,  7,  8,  9,  commas  are  put; 
and  after  12.  16.  19.  24.  full  points;  but  to  save  figures  and 
commas,  the  succession  of  the  former  is  noticed,  by  putting  a 
dash  between  the  first  and  last  figures,  thus,  4 — 8.  Again,  if 
an  article  has  been  collected  from  two  pages,  the  folio  of  the 
second  is  supplied  by  sq.  or  sequente;  and  by  sqq.  or  sequienti- 
bus,  when  an  article  is  touched  upon  in  succeeding  pages.  A 
full  point  is  not  put  after  the  last  figures,  because  it  is  thought 
that  their  standing  at  the  end  of  the  line  is  a  sufficient  stop. 
Neither  is  a  comma  or  a  full  point  placed  to  the  last  word  of  an 
article,  in  a  wide  measure  and  open  matter;  but  it  is  not  im- 
proper to  use  a  comma  at  the  end  of  every  article  in  narrow 
columns,  or  where  figures-  are  put  after  the  matter,  instead  of 
running  them  to  the  end  of  the  line. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  index,  the  volume  is  considered  as 
completed,  with  the  exception  of  the  title,  preface,  &,c.  A  com- 
positor's first  consideration,  then,  is  in  what  manner  the  work 
has  ended,  what  number  of  pages  the  titles,  See.,  will  make, 
and  whether  he  can  impose  them  in  such  a  form  as  to  save 
paper  and  presswork.  To  answer  this  purpose,  a  preface  may 
be  drove  out  or  got  in ;  or  if  matter  is  wanting,  it  is  customary 
to  set  a  half  title. 

The  method  of  setting  or  displaying  a  title  is  governed 
entirely  by  fancy;  and  in  this  country  the  style  of  late  years  is 
much  altered  for  the  better,  as  a  comparison  between  the  title 
pages  of  the  last  and  present  century  fully  evince.  We  concur 
in  the  assertion,  that  no  fixed  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  instruc- 
tion, because  it  depends  entirely  upon  the  taste  and  ingenuity 
of  the  compositor;  such  being  the  prevalent  opinion,  we  trust 
that  we  shall  be  pardoned  for  obtruding  a  few  hints,  which,  in 
our  judgment,  may  tend  to  assist  the  juvenile  portion  of  the 
profession.  1st.  Having  divided  the  title  into  lines,  and  decided 
upon  the  sized  type  most  suitable  for  the  principal  one,  we 
beein  by  composing  those  of  the  second  and  third  class,  both  in 
ascending  and  descending  order.  2d.  We  avoid  having  two 
lines  of  equal  length  to  follow,  or  come  in  contact  with  each 


116  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

other.  3d.  Catch  words  should  be  set  on  a  very  reduced  scale, 
and  proportioned  according  to  the  strength  of  the  preceding  and 
succeeding  lines;  because,  when  catch  words  are  bold,  they 
take  from  the  general  effect  of  the  title,  it  being  impossible  that 
it  can  appear  to  advantage  if  the  striking  lines,  which  ought  to 
stand  forward,  are  too  much  crowded  by  the  full  appearance  of 
their  neighbors7  faces.  4th.  This  knowledge  will  be  best  attained 
by  a  close  attention  to  those  .fitle  pages  which  are  considered, 
by  those  who  are  judges,  to  be  displayed  with  true  taste  and 
judgment 

Authors  should  endeavor  to  make  their  title  pages  as  short 
and  concise  as  possible ;  for  a  crowded  title  never  can  be  dis- 
played with  elegance  or  taste. 

The  dedication  generally  follows  the  title,  and  seldom  exceeds 
one  page.  It  should  be  set  in  capitals  and  small  capitals,  dis- 
played in  the  manner  of  a  title;  but  where  it  extends  to  a 
considerable  length,  it  is  generally  set  in  a  letter  two  sizes  larger 
than  the  work.  There  is  neither  folio  nor  direction  line  required 
to  it,  where  it  does  not  exceed  a  page;  but  if  it  happens  to  be 
the  third  page  of  the  sheet,  the  signature  must  be  inserted.  The 
French  Manual  gives  very  particular  directions  upon  this  head : 
"  When  a  book  is  divided  by  several  different  titles,  we  must 
give  to  each  division  its  suitable  type.  Thus,  if  we  set  the 
word  'Part'  in  Pica,  we  should  set  ( Chapter'  in  Long  Primer. 
'Article'  in  Bourgeois,  and  '  Section'  in  Brevier." — In  English 
works  this  does  not  often  occur,  but  the  principle  laid  down  is 
very  proper.  "  In  Epistles  Dedicatory,  the  name  of  the  person 
to  whom  the  work  is  dedicated,  should  always  be  in  capitals, 
and  the  terms,  Your  very  humble  and  very  obedient,  &c.  should 
be  set  in  a  smaller  type,  and  the  signature,  or  name  of  the 
author,  in  capitals  of  a  less  fount  than  that  in  which  the  name 
of  the  personage  to  whom  dedicated,  has  been  set."  » 

Formerly,  the  preface  was  uniformly  set  in  Italic;  at  present 
this  plan  is  seldom  adopted,  and  Roman  is  used  in  its  stead,  of 
one  size  larger  than  the  body  of  the  work.  The  running  title 
to  the  preface  is  commonly  set  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of 
the  body  of  the  work,  at  the  same  time  the  folios  are  put  in 
numeral  letters,  beginning  with  ii  over  the  second  page,  and 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  117 

continuing  the  rest  in  the  usual  manner.  If  the  work  itself  was 
printed  Avith  folios  only,  then  the  preface  should  have  them 
also  in  the  middle  of  the  line. 

The  title,  dedication/  preface,  introduction,  &c.,  form  what  is 
called  the  title  sheet,  viz.  signature  A,  which  makes  the  printer's 
alphabet,  consisting  of  twenty-three  letters/' complete;  provided 
that  the  body  of  the  work  begins  with  B.  To  ascertain  more 
readily  how  many  sheets  a  book  consists  of,  more  than  are 
marked  with  signatures  in  capitals  or  small  capitals,  a  lower 
case  Roman  a  is  put  to  the  first  sheet,  and  .thus  carried  ^pn  till 
the  beginning  of  the  body  of  the  work. 

What  has  been  observed  concerning  prefaces,  relates  equally 
to  introductions,  drawn  up  and  intended  to  elucidate  their 
respective  works. 

The  contents  follow  the  preface  or  introduction,  and  are 
either  set  in  Roman  or  Italic,  generally  two  sizes  smaller  than 
the  body  of  the  work;  the  first  line  of  each  summary  full,  and 
the  rest  indented  an  m  quadrat,  with  the  referring  figures  justi- 
fied at  the  ends  of  the  respective  lines. 

The  errata  are  put  immediately  before  the  body  of  the  work, 
or  at  the  end  of  it,  and  should  consist  only  of  such  corrections 
as  are  indispensably  necessary,  without  noticing  any  defects  in 
the  punctuation,  unless  where  the  sense  is  perverted. 

It  is  most  devoutly  to  be  wished,  that  works  could  issue  from 
the  press  perfectly  free  from  errors,  which  would  more  likely 
be  the  case  were  authors  to  endeavor  to  render  their  copy  more 
legible,  before  they  place  it  into  the  hands  of  the  printer.  It  can 
hardly  be  expected  that  the  corrector,  under  whose  inspection 
such  a  variety  of  subjects  are  continually  passing,  should  be 
able  to  enter  thoroughly  into  every  one  of  them,  and  to  guess  so 
nicely  at  the  author's  meaning  when  the  copy  is  obscure,  and 
unable  to  afford  him  any  assistance:  besides  every  form  is  ex- 
posed to  accidents  which  can  seldom  be  delected  as  it  passes 
through  the  hands  of  the  printer;  so  that  every  additional  proof 
may  be  productive  of  fresh  error. 

*  It  \vas  formerly  the  custom  to  omit  the  letters,  J,  V,  and  W,  in  tho 
list  of  signatures.  But  the  greater  convenience  attending  the  use  of 
twenty-five  letters  has  recently  induced  several  of  our  largest  establish- 
ments to  omit  the  letter  J  only. 


CHAPTER  V. 

IMPOSING. 

HAVING  sufficiently  treated,  in  the  preceding  chapter,  upon  the 
principal  subjects  connected  with  the  department  of  composing, 
it  next  becomes  our  duty  not  only  to  lay  schemes  of  the  various 
impositions  before  our  readers,  but  also  to  endeavor  to  give  a 
general  outline  for  the  imposition  of  whatever  odd  matter  there 
may  be  at  the  conclusion  of  a  work;  and  likewise  to  explain,  in 
as  clear  a  manner  as  possible,  every  point  connected  with  this 
important  branch  of  the  art. 

This  article  not  only  comprehends  a  knowledge  of  placing  the 
pages  so  that  they  may  regularly  follow  each  other  after  they 
are  printed  off,  and  the  sheet  folded  up,  but  also  the  mode 
of  dressing  chases,  and  the  manner  of  making  the  proper 
margin. 

We  will  suppose  that  a  compositor  has  got  up  as  many  pages 
as  are  required  for  a  whole  sheet,  or  such  portions  of  a  sheet, 
of  whatever  size;  he  begins  to  lay  them  upon  the  imposing 
stone,  placing  the  first  page  with  the  signature  to  the  left  hand 
facing  him,  according  to  the  following  schemes,  which,  it  is 
hoped,  will  be  found  to  contain  every  necessary  imposition; 
they  consist  of  folios,  quartos,  octavos,  twelves,  sixteens, 
eighteens,  twenties,  twenty-fours,  thirty-twos,  thirty-sixes, 
forties,  forty-eights,  sixty-fours,  seventy-twos,  ninety-sixes,  and 
one  hundred  and  twenty-eights.  We  have  also  introduced 
schemes  for  imposing  from  the  centre,  by  which  means  the 
blank,  or  open  pages  may  be  thrown  in  the  centre  of  the  form, 
leaving  the  solid  pages  on  the  outside  to  act  as  bearers  for  the 
rollers,  as  well  as  for  the  better  regulation  of  the  impression. 

Schemes  of  various  other  irregular  sizes  mi^ht  also  be  intro- 
duced, but  they  could  answer  no  other  purpose  than  that  of 
pleasing  the  fancy,  by  exhibiting  the  possibility  of  folding  a 
sheet  of  paper  into  so  many  different  forms. 


TYPOGRAPH1A 119 


Abstract   Title  Deeds  of  Estates. 


1 

Abstract  Title 
Deeds  of  Estates  are 
printed  with  blanks 
at  the  back,  with  all. 
the  margin  on  the  left 
side,  and  on  single 
leaves,  which  are 
stitched  together  at 
the  corner. 

This  method  of 
imposing  the  form  is 
to  save  press-work 
and  the  compositor's 
charge. 


I- 


A  Single  Sheet  of  Folio. 


Inner 


Form. 


Outer 


Form,. 


11 


120  ....   TYPOGRAPHIA. 


Two  Sheets  of  Folio,  Quired,*-  or  lying  one  in  another, 
Outer  Form  of  the  Outer  Sheet. 


1 


1 


Outer  Form  of  the  Inner  Sheet. 


A2 


*  Imposing  in  quires  may  be  carried  to  any  extent,  by  observing 
the  following  rule  : — first,  ascertain  the  number  of  pages,  then  divide 
them  into  so  many  sheets  of  folio,  and  commence  laying  down  the 
two  first  and  two  last,  which  form  the  first  sheet,  and  so  on  to  r.lie 
centre  one,  always  remembering  that  the  odd  pages  stand  on  the  left, 
and  the  even  on  the  right;  the  folios  of  each  two  forming  one  more 
than  the  number  of  pages  in  the  work:  for  example,  let  us  suppose 
the  work  to  consist  of  thirty-six  pages,  which  is  nine  sheets  of  folio, 
then  they  should  be  laid  down  according  to  the  scheme  at  the  foot 
of  the  opposite  page. 


TYPOGRAPHIA    ....    121 

Two  Sheets  of  Folio,    Quired,  or  lying  one  in  another. 
Inner  Form  of  the  Outer  Sheet. 


Inner  Form  of  the  Inner  Sheet. 


1    36    35      2, 
7    30    29      8,  4/A 


3    34    33      4, 
9    28    27     10, 


13    24    23     14, 1th  \     15    22    21     16,  8/ 


5  32  31  6  3d 
11  26  25  12  6th 
17  20  19  18  9*/i 


The  furniture  must  be  reduced  in  the  backs  of  the  inner  sheets,  to 
allow  for  stitching. 


122  ....   TYPOGRAPHIA, 

A  Sheet  of  Common  Quarto. 

r 


Outer 


J 


I 


Form. 


A  Sheet  of  Quarto,  the  Broad  Way,  commonly  used 
in   Works  of  Music. 


Outer 


Form. 


TYPOGRAPHIA,    .    .    .      123 


A  Sheet  of  Common  Quarto. 


Inner 


g 


Form. 


A  Sheet  of  Quarto,  the  Broad  Way,  commonly  used 
in   Works  of  Music. 


Inner 
9 


Form. 
8 


11* 


124   .    .    .    .TYPOGRAPHIA, 


Tivc  Half  Sheets  of  Quarto,  worked  together. 


Outer 


z* 


Form. 


Half  a  Sheet  of  Common  Quarto. 


TYPOGRAFHIA,    .    .    .    125 


ralf  Sheets  of  Quarto,  worked  t 

Inner      j 

Form. 

?. 

1* 

~vw~w~w*~v~vw~ 

3 

2 



! 

Half  a  Sheet  of  Quarto,  the  Broad  Way. 


126  .    .    .    .TYPOGRAPH1A, 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Common  Octavo. 


j 


16 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  the  Broad  Way, 

I    ir 


TYPOGRAPH1A     .    .     .    127 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Common  Octavo. 


01 


A'2 


15 


j 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  the  Broad  Way. 


128    ....     TYPOGRAPH1A, 


Tuo  Half  Sheets  of  Common  Octavo  worked  together. 


4 


Half  a  Sheet  of  Common  Octavo. 


TYPOGRAPH1A,    .     .     .    129 


Inner  Form  of  Two  Half  Sheets  of  Octavo. 


Two  Quarters  of  a  Sheet   of  Octavo,  worked    together. 


130   •    •    •    TYPOGRAPHIA. 


Sheet  of  Octavo,   12  of  the   Work,  and  4  other  Matter. 


12 


i — 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  of  Hebrew   Work. 


e-i 


13 


16 


Inner  Form 
9 

of< 

TYPOGRAPH1A,    .    .    .     131 

Octavo,  12  of  the  Work,  and  4  other  Matter. 

L 

, 

z 
I 

3 

A2 

Inner  For 

p7" 

m  (. 

10 

'•: 

if  a  Sheet 

\ 

, 

OT 

=*K 

% 

11 

2 

c 

Octavo,  of  Hebrew  Work. 

n 

9 

i 

2 

i 

15 

14 

3 

i  

12 


132  .    .    .    TYPOGRAPHY, 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposed  from  the  Centre. 


13 


16 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposed  from  the  Centre. 


TYPOGRAPH1A,     .    .    .    133 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposed  from  the  Centre, 


\ 


CI 


II 


15 


fir 


Tivo  Quarters  of  a  Sheet  of  Octavo,  Imposed  from  the  Centre 
•t 


134    •    .    •    TYPOGRAPHIA. 


i  ° 


o 

K 


& 

OQ 


co  J      1 


55 


TYPOGRAPH1A.    .    .    .    135 


r      1 


—       to 

h™*    « 


12* 


136   •    •    •    TYPOGRAPHIA. 


s 


K) 


TYPOGRAPH1A,    .    .    .    137 


1 


'1  r 


"•*  I       5   O 


10  J      I  co 

~J    i 


— . 


> 


Cfq 


TYPOGRAPH1A,    .    .    .     139 


r~         ~~| 

J  CO  > 


n  K    1 

B  } ;  I S  \ 


!i  ^ 


140    •    •    •     I'YPOGRAPHIA 


tier  Fcrrm  of  a  Sheet  of  Long  Twelve 

E3 

5 

i 

I 

O) 
;                        ^^ 

CO 
f+~~~+~+    ~*+~~, 

[  j 

i—  t 
J 

' 

GO 

^*««.    i   n      ^^a^x^ 

10 

i 

•j 

0 
01 

£ 

—  >*». 

(N 

• 

One  third,  or  8  pages  of  a  Sheet  of  Twelves. 
To  be  imposed  as  a  Slip,  or  in  the   Off-cross. 


Form.  | 


TYPOGRAPHJA      .    .    . 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Long  Twelves. 


One  third,  or  8  pages  of  a  Sheet  of  Tioelves. 
To  be  imposed  as  a  Slip,  or  in  the   Off-cross. 


Inner 


|  Form. 


142   •    •    •    TYPOGRAPH1A. 


J 


L: 


•<* 

lvv*~v. 


JO 


10  CO 


ri     jo       *    S>~j 
l—4    I  3   ? 


TYPOGRAPH1A.    .    .    .     143 


& 


i? 




i        5        2 


I 


>— {        T*  &o 

Li 

AVM]  *vw«%w««MiMMl  Ci 


13 


t — - 

j? 


144 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


eg' 
a 


r 


*  A  Sheet  of  Sixteens,  with  Two  Signatures,  is  imposed  as  two  sheer 
of  common  octavo,  putting  the  first  signature  for  the  one  half  shec 
where  A  stands,  (folio  1),  and  the  first  page  of  the  other  half  sheet  i 
the  place  of  A  3  (folio  5.) 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


145 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Eighteen** 
Containing  16  pages. 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Eight  eensj 


| 1        ) 1        ' j 


1JI 


— { 


*  The  white  paper  of  this  half  sheet  being  worked  off,  the  centre 
pages  to  be  transposed;  viz.  seven  and  ten  in  the  room  of  eight  and 
nine,  and  pages  eight  and  nine  in  the  place  of  seven  and  ten:  when 
this  is  done  your  imposition  will  be  true. 

t  The  white  paper  of  this  form  being  now  worked  off^  the  four 
lowermost  panes  in  the  centre  must  be  transposed;  viz.  pages  eight 
and  eleven  in  the  room  of  seven  and  twelve,  and  pages  seven  and 
twelve  in  the  place  of  eight  and  eleven-  this  being  done,  the  sheet 
will  then  fold  up  right. 


146    •    •    •     TYPOGRAPHIA. 


Outer  Form  of  a,  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  to  be  folded  together. 


nr 

A3 


32 


29    \ 


17 


r  1     j  ss 


36  { 


25  | 


12 


13 


i        * 1        * 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  One  Signature. 


I {       \ } 

9V 


II 


or, 


•  v«*WVWtV«»  .-WVWV*^.*, 

I    8    !        I  63 


36 

!    i 


QO     J 

66    j 


14  j 


TYPOGRAPHIA.    .    .    .    147 


Inner  Form  of  a,  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  to  be  folded  together. 


19  j 


18 


1:1 


J , 

30 


* j 


31   !       j    6 


91  i  01 


j          ? 


LZ  \       \tt 


23 


26 


35 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  One  Signature. 


8T 


^          *        I          I 


JVj 


, 
!  91   |          18 


13          \  24 


18  |  08 

?, 


34 


13* 


148   .    .    .    TYPOGRAPHIA. 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  tvithTwo  Signatures. 


8T  j  91 


$  ^         <i        vvwwvxx$        » 


ZI              OS  , 
? 


24  I          21 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  Three  Signatures. 


9   i 


— 


12 


12 


TYPOGRAFHIA    .    .    .    149 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  withTwo  Signatures. 
\         I 


fl 


II 


01 


61 


81 


11 


22 


23 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  with  Three  Signatures. 


01 


j    o     $       *    1 1   * 
}    £  j    1 1  j 


11 


J    L 


150    •    •    •    TYPOGRAPHIA. 

Half  Sheet  of  Eighteens,  without   Transposition* 

~~~t       i -\ 

*     ov 


L\ 


8 


12 


13 


14 


oi 


11 


Half  Sheet  of  Twenties,  with  Two  Signatures. 


E 


~q|<o  ] 


10  CO 


p .    — 

Y&"*\     ™\ 


L 


DIU 


*  To  print  a  half  sheet  of  eighteen s  without  transposition,  has  long 
been  considered  as  impossible;  at  last  a  wiseacre  made  this  discovery; 
it  is  here  given  with  a  view  of  showing  its  absurdity!  Are  three  single 
leaves  preferable  to  the  transposition  of  four  pages  ? 


TYPOGRAPH1A    .    .    .     151 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Twenties. 


L5  El  I 
E3 


10 

CO    M    CO 


; 


I if  LLI 


:»|  To         I    Qg 
^  i      co  co 

_ 


=>•<*>» 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Twenties. 


i    ;i 


r  H[«  i 
i ii  t i 


g  1    |:   W       CO 


152    •    •    •    TYPOGRAPHIC. 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Twenty-fours. 


h  11 

*  I  i  i 

ULlLod 


r — ?  r 


Sl 


9V 


S  9 


I  A2 


{  GT      |.g  T      {   Z 

Uv^^wX     CM«M«M%      U^»CU»^: 


=*4-* 


Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Twenty-fours,  with  Two  Sigs. 


91 


I  "b    I   f   1 1   I  I  flK        '     C 


98  !  |  Z8 


===J 


TYPOORAPH1A    .    .    .    153 


A  Half  Shpet  of  Twenty-fours,  the  Sixteen-way. 


19 


1    I     24|      21 


9T  M   6 


6       |  13        12 


ifl  !  |TI 


41  I  15  j  j  10  | 


JF0m  o/  a  Sheet  of  Twenty-fours,  with  Two  Sigs. 


9* 

88  1  {  98 


01 


J9V 

I  IT 


T8 


47     i  26 


3   i  }  22  i  f  23^  i    2 

A2 


154    •    •    •    TYPOGRAPHIA. 


A  Half  Sheet  of  long  Twenty-fours. 


A2 


nirrT 


i  I !  si  !  \  er, 


6      Fl9l  \  22 


fj  181 


16! 

\ 


A5 


o/  Twenty-fours,  with  Two  Signatures. 


Fsr 

61 


I?, 


m 

LfL 


13 


TYFOGRAPHIA    .    .     .     155 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Twenty-fours,  without  Cutting. 


14 


156    •    •    •    TYPOGRAPH1A. 

Outer  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-twos. 


l  -  1  ?  -  . 


T9 


98 


rnr 


J  LJ 


91 

vV>C 


64 


33 


32 


pol 

I I! \ 


Outer  Form  of  a 


Thirty-twos,  loilh  Four  Sigs. 


n  i  sa ' 

f  hi 

LQiJ  JiU  L22J  USJ 


59 


i 


54 


j—j|^ 

bu  Li. 


FTel 


x98 


37 
c3 


44 


41 


40 


j  -  j 


s 

B2 


30  !,  |  31 


Ts 


TYPOGRAPH1A    .    .    .    ]  57 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-twos. 


1 1  ||  54  |      43  |  |  22  ! 

A6 

MWWVWMf        i~vw«v*^i        »^.»»»~»->v4        UwWVWM* 


e 


19  "i %  46 1  rsn 

I    n 

1 1 I  L 


j 


8JJ 


58 


~3<P  126 


31  |  p4l  rSaj  i  2 


Inner  Form  of  a  Sheet  of  Thirty-twos,  with  Four  Sigs. 


L2Ll  LSL 


39  {  !  42 


43 


J 


38 


60 


57 


56 


I I 


its 


r  i 


32       29 


20 


15 


158    .    .    .    TYPOGRAPHIC. 

A  Half  Sheet  of  Thirty-twos,  with  Two  Signatures. 

pgai 


I I 


21 

B3 


25  {  |  24  | 


16 


13 


3 

A2 


14]  !  15 


HaZ/  Sheet  of  Thirty-twos,  20  jpa^s  of  the  Work, 
4  j?^e5  of  Title,  fyc.  and  8  of  other  Matter. 


I — ^ 


st 


6t 


:  5f  !  I  4f 


1 3*  n  2* 


I 1 


U 


01 


L 


16 1  \  13  \  nn 


_UU' 


TYPOORAPH1A    .    .    .    159 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Thirty-sixes. 


F  -I 

HMMMMMHWI 

[~~™, 
13 
••••••••Mj 

Q 


a 

3 


CO  *     (-H      CD 

-<•    H     <1 


s|  I     d  i 
i  ^      I  i 

WMWMt^VkwJ         »»*^*»^vv>~w»         >^. 


^ — ~~~J 

!     2  r     i 

* VX~~vJ  JvXVXWW..w{ 


J  00 


|co 

CO 


o/  Thirty-sixes,  without  Cutting. 


-     2 


EJJ 


14* 


160   .    .    .    TYPOGRAPH1A. 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Thirty*sixes,  with  Two  Signatures. 


^ —  — ;    . — 

i«  SM* 


11 


I J[ 

D3 


| oj    p | 


I    jpj  I     *°*  \     *] 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Forties. 


j 1  { , 


61 


29 


40  I  !  37 


IL. 


30 


m 

A2 


38 


39  M  2 


TYPOGRAPH1A    .    .    .    161 


A  Quarter  Sheet  of  Forty'tights,  with  Two  Signatures. 


8  J  _f_  JjJ 

Tel 


L  ±1  L ! 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Forty-eights,  with  Two  Signatures. 
I 1 


7 

A4 


191  16 


11 


14* 


15  I  «  10 


42]  j"43]  {"30 


131 

bill 


35  M  38  H  39 


LJ 


Zl  !     81      _9U  L6J 


303 


It 


rn  p 


25  I  |  48  |    "45  | 


_ 


162    .    .    .    TYPOGRAPH1A. 

A  Quarter  Sheet  of  Forty-eights,  without  Cutting 

1  ^ 


A3 


17 


91 


: i 


12 


11 

A6 


14 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Forty-eights,  with  Three  Signatures. 

r 


es  I 


43 


38 


LSL 


08  I 


6T 


u 


26  |  i  27 


22 


B3 


[28]  \  25 


24 


16]  I  13  {  !  4 


L 


r 


TYPOORAPH1A    .    .    .    163 


A  Common  Quarter  Sheet  of  Forty-eights. 


91   I  !    6 


HLJ  Uu  hi 


11 

2? 


t 


22! 


23 


A  Quarter  Sheet  of  Sixty-fours,  with  Two  Signatures. 


r — i  * * 


T8 


81 


23 

B4 


08 


ZT 


21 

B3 


25 


24 


L§J 


mri 


3 

A2 


r 


164    .    •    •    TYPOGRAPH1A. 


A  Common  Quarter  Sheet  of  Sixty-fours. 


13 


20  r  r  21     12 


rn 


L\ 


. 


OT  1     83  1     81  H  SI 


7 

A4 


31 


A  Quarter  Sheet  of  Sixty-fours,  20  pages  of  the  Work, 
8  of  Title,  and  4  of  other  Matter. 


L 


17 


20 


j i 


rr 


LJL 


II 

rr 


Is" 


TYPOGRAPH1A    .     .     .    165 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Sixty-fours. 


15 


47  I  IIS 


f  T  I      19 


r~~~? 


9J 


o      \W]     35      I  3U 


n 


38     j  59 


IL 


j , 


91  } 


64  I  !33]  {  32 

l      I      ' 

A     j    j  j    | J 


166    .    .    .    TYPOGRAPH1A. 


A  Half  Sheet  of  Seventy-twos,  with  Three  Signatures. 


~{   I — ( 

-.{     o? 

a-cLJ 


— 

b  _  I.-  ......  - 


,p 


r    H  r 


5 


P" 


p.  — I  f  ~  ~;< 

J  O0{      J"H          •*! 


L 


TYPOGRAPH1A.     .    .     .    167 


LJEJ  i£3  LU 

El 

^1 

£>.  > 


,~»~v~ 

<M      { 

^        J 


*S        JgJ     I 


'-  -j 

u 


L5EJ 


!  £w  1 


<    CO 

UlJ 


j      10 


I  ll 


\    CO         { 


jg?"J    [    S|    | _ S>.  I 


rrri  f 

<      co  *•  • 

8 

I  F™S  fi 


w 


to  i       I  co 


F"! 


I 


16 


u. 


»sj  GO  OH  E3 

F|  [s~l  m  m 
"si  F«~ 

I— •   f     J    CM 


H-  <    5   oo  -* 

J2J  LESj 


^-    5     i    Tf          I      \     <"i  CO    <     >    ^t* 

[  *7l  I  f  ^      ii^^ii00 

'»»»%>•»•»»<       UwMMMMf      LMMMATVM^      -w^**^^* 
I ^**^       ^^^^^>      ^ . 

D3 LsJ i  ~l l5J 


pi 

r 


VM^^M^ 

" 


fs  ! 


p~i  r~sn  s"T~| 
L_±j  Lr_J  I.....°.J  L?J 


R_» 


sHs 


r~^n  f 


LS 


IrZiEIjLli^ 


M  eg 
j  $  •*•;•"  ; 


§i  S§ 


J  LEU 


LJ]  l£j  LU  UJi 


i sa 1  I  s| 


{   Men  I    !  co       M    aHI  M  ^       i^ 
>l=^)^50        I    |S5J    *J5        J^y. 


;     -j  : 

LJT j 


CZ!  GO  mi  OD ? 


LU  lELJ  LU  ili 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  169 

All  odd  matter,  for  whatever  sized  form,  should  be  divided 
into  fours,  eights,  twelves  and  sixteens,  which  is  the  ground- 
work of  all  the  impositions,  except  the  eighteens,  which  differ 
from  all  the  others ;  for  instance,  sixteens,  twenty-fours,  and 
thirty-twos,  are  only  octavos  and  twelves  doubled,  or  twice  dou- 
bled, and  imposed  in  half  sheets :  for  example,  the  sixteens  are 
two  octavos  imposed  on  one  side  the  short  cross ;  the  twenty- 
fours  are  two  twelves  imposed  on  each  side  the  long  cross,  and 
a  thirty-two  is  four  octavos  imposed  in  each  quarter  of  the  chase. 
Thus  a  sheet  may  be  repeatedly  doubled.  By  this  division,  any 
form  or  sheet  may  be  imposed,  always  bearing  in  mind,  that  the 
first  page  of  each  class  must  stand  to  the  left  hand,  when  the 
foot  of  the  page  is  towards  you,  and  to  the  right  when  the  head 
of  the  page  is  nearest  to  you.  Having  set  down  the  first  page, 
then  trace  the  remainder  according  to  the  scheme  which  applies 
to  its  number;  in  proof  of  which,  the  standard  rule  for  all  other 
impositions  may  be  adopted ;  namely,  each  two  pages  that  come 
together,  will  make  one  more  than  the  number  of  pages  in  the 
class  or  sheet.  The  first  page  of  any  portion  can  be  placed  in 
the  situation  of  any  odd  page,  where  they  make  even  numbers. 
It  is  necessary  to  make  a  few  observations  on  the  method  of 
tying  up  a  page,  which  is  done  with  a  piece  of  strong  pack  thread 
or  fine  twine,  turned  four  or  five  times  round  it,  and  fastened  at 
the  right  hand  corner,  by  thrusting  a  noose  of  it  between  the 
several  turnings  and  the  matter,  with  the  rule,  and  drawing  it 
perfectly  tight,  taking  care  always  to  keep  the  end  of  the  cord 
on  the  face  of  the  page,  and  while  tying  it  to  keep  the  fore 
finger  of  the  left  hand  tight  on  the  corner,  to  prevent  the  page 
from  being  drawn  aside. 

The  page  being  tied  up,  the  compositor  removes  it  from  the 
ledges  of  the  galley,  to  see  if  the  turns  of  cord  lie  about  tho 
middle  of  the  shank  of  the  letter;  if  they  lie  too  high,  as  most 
commonly  they  do,  he  thrusts  them  lower,  and  if  the  page  be 
not  too  broad,  he  places  the  fore  and  middle  finder  of  his  right 
hand,  on  the  offside  of  the  head  of  the  page,  and  his  thumb  on 
the  near;  then,  bending  his  other  fingers  under,  presses  them 
firmly  against  the  head  of  the  pa<^;  he  next  places  the  fingers 
of  his  left  hand  ia  the  same  position  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  arid 


170  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

raising  it  upright,  lays  it  on  a  page  paper;  then,  with  his  right 
hand  he  grasps  the  sides  of  the  page  and  the  paper,  which  turns 
up  against  the  sides  of  the  page.,  and  sets  it  in  a  convenient  spot 
under  his  frame,  placing  it  on  the  left  hand,  with  the  foot 
towards  him,  that  the  other  pages  that  are  in  like  manner  set 
clown  afterwards,  may  stand  by  it  in  an  orderly  succession  until 
he  comes  to  impose  them. 

If  it  be  a  large  folio  page,  or  a  broadside,  he  has  tied  up,  he 
cannot  take  that  into  his  hands,  because  it  is  too  broad  for  his 
grasp;  therefore  he  carries  his  galley  and  page  to  the  imposing 
stone,  and  turns  the  handle  of  the  galley  towards  him,  and 
taking  hold  of  the  handle  with  his  right  hand,  he  places  the  ball 
of  the  thumb  of  his  left  hand  against  the  inside  of  the  head 
ledge  of  the  galley,  to  hold  it  and  keep  it  steady,  and  by  the 
handle  draws  the  slice  with  the  page  upon  it,  out  of  the  galley, 
letting  the  slice  rest  upon  the  imposing  stone :  he  then  thrusts 
the  head  end  of  the  slice  so  far  upon  it,  that  the  foot  of  the  page 
may  stand  an  inch  or  two  within  the  outer  edge  of  the  stone, 
and  placing  his  left  hand  against  the  foot  of  the  page,  in  the 
same  posture  he  last  placed  it  against  the  head  ledge  of  the 
galley,  he  then  draws  the  slice  from  under  the  bottom  of  the 
page.  We  shall  now  return  to  our  subject : — 

In  half  sheets,  all  the  pages  belonging  to  the  white  paper, 
and  reiteration,  are  imposed  in  one  chase.  So  that  when  a 
sheet  of  paper  is  printed  on  both  sides  with  the  same  form,  that 
sheet  is  cut  in  two  in  the  short  cross,  if  quarto  or  octavo,  and 
in  the  short  and  long  cross,  if  twelves,  and  folded  as  octavo,  or 
twelves. 

When  a  compositor  proceeds  to  impose,  he  carefully  takes 
the  pages,  which  he  had  previously  placed  on  pieces  of  paper, 
in  regular  succession,  from  under  his  frame:  in  doing  this,  the 
paper  should  be  tightly  grasped  on  both  sides  the  page,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  kept  firm  to  the  bottom  of  the  page,  whereas  if  it 
should  be  left  slack,  the  letters  will  be  liable  to  slip  out,  unless 
it  be  particularly  well  tied  up;  haying  conveyed  it  to  the  stone, 
he  next  places  the  two  last  fingers  of  his  right  hand  under  the 
head  of  the  page,  but  not  under  the  page  paper  at  the  head  of 
it,  still  grasping  the  sides  with  his  fore  fingers  and  thumb;  he 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  171 

then  slips  his  left  hand  so  that  the  palm  of  it  may  turn  towards 
the  Dottom;  and  lifting  the  page  upright  on  his  right  hand,  he 
disengages  the  left  to  remove  the  paper :  he  next  grasps  the 
foot  end  of  the  page  with  his  left  hand.,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  right  holds  the  head  of  it,  and  turning  the  face  of  the  letter 
towards  him,  lays  it  nimbly  down,  so  that  the  whole  page  may 
come  in  contact  with  the  face  of  the  stone  at  one  time,  thereby 
preventing  any  letters  from  slipping  out,  which  would  endan- 
ger the  breaking,  squabbling,  or  hanging  of  the  page. 

As  the  foregoing  method,  particularly  in  inexperienced  or 
careless  hands,  would  frequently  endanger  a  page,  because, 
should  it  be  large,  double,  or  treble  columns,  or  have  side  notes, 
it  would  be  much  safer  to  pursue  the  following  plan,  which  is 
now  adopted  by  many  compositors ;  namely,  to  provide  good 
strong,  not  coarse  and  rough,  page  papers,  and  when  the  pages 
are  brought  to  the  stone,  instead  of  lifting  them  up  as  just 
noticed,  they  are  slided  off  the  papers  in  the  same  manner  as 
before  directed  respecting  a  folio  page  on  the  slice  galley,  being 
careful  that  no  particles  of  dirt  remain  under  the  page. 

Being  sure  that  our  pages  are  laid  down  right,  we  proceed  to 
dressing  of  chases,  which  we  will  suppose  to  be  for  a  sheet  of 
octavo.  Accordingly  we  endeavor  to  come  at  a  good  pair  of 
chases,  that  are  fellows,  as  well  in  circumference  as  in  other 
respects;  and  having  laid  them  over  the  pages  for  the  two 
different  forms,  we  consjder  the  largeness  of  the  paper  on 
which  the  work  is  to  be  done,  and  put  such  gutter-stick  between 
page  a»d  page,  and  such  reglets  along  the  sides  of  the  two 
crosses,  as  will  give  the  book  proper  margins  after  it  is  bound. 

The  pages  of  a  sheet  or  half  sheet  being  now  laid,  our  next 
business  is  to  arrange  the  margin,  so  that  each  page  may 
occupy  one  side  of  a  leaf,  and  have  the  proper  proportion  of 
white  paper  left  at  the  sides,  as  well  as  at  the  head  and  foot 
thereof.  Custom  has  familiarised  us  to  the  printed  page  being 
a  little  higher  than  the  middle  of  the  leaf,  and  to  its  having  a 
little  more  margin  on  the  outside  than  in  the  back. 

In   making  margin,  some    use   the   following  method,   for 
octavos;  viz.  they  measure  and  mark  the  width  of  four  pages 
by  compasses,  on  a   sheet  of  paper  designed    for  the  work, 
15* 


172  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

beginning  to  measure  at  one  extremity  of  the  breadth  of  the 
sheet.  The  rest  of  the  paper  they  divide  into  four  equal  parts, 
allowing  two'fourths  for  the  width  of  two  separate  gutter-sticks; 
the  remaining  two-fourths  they  divide  again  into  four  equal 
parts,  and  allow  one-fourth  for  the  margin  along  each  side  of 
the  short  cross,  and  one-fourth  for  the  margin  to  each  outside 
page.  But  because  the  thickness  of  the  short  cross  adds  con- 
siderably to  the  margin,  they  reduce  the  furniture  in  the  back 
accordingly,  and  thereby  enlarge  the  outside  margin,  which 
requires  the  greatest  share  to  allow  for  the  unevenness  of  the 
paper  itself,  as  well  as  for  pressmen  laying  sheets  uneven, 
when  the  fault  is  not  in  the  paper.  Having  thus  made  the 
margin  between  the  pages  to  the  breadth  of  the  paper,  they  pro- 
portion the  margin  at  the  head,  in  the  same  manner,  to  the 
length,  and  accordingly  measure  and  mark  the  length  of  two 
pages,  dividing  the  rest  into  four  parts,  whereof  is  allowed  one- 
fourth  on  each  side  of  the  long  cross,  and  one-fourth  for  the 
margin  that  runs  along  the  foot  of  the  two  ranges  of  pages. 
But  though  each  part  is  counted  equal  to  another,  they  do  not 
prove  so  upon  examination;  for  as  in  the  short  cross,  so  they 
lessen  the  furniture  on  both  sides  the  long  one,  to  enlarge  the 
bottom  margin,  for  the  same  reasons  that  were  assigned  for 
extending  the  side  margin. 

This  being  the  method  that  is  used  by  some  in  making  mar- 
gin to  octavos,  they  go  the  same  way  to  work  in  twelves,  where 
their  chief  care  is  to  fix  upon  a  proper  size  for  the  head-sticks; 
and,  according  to  them,  allow  in  the  following  manner:  viz. 
for  the  outer  margin  along  the  foot  of  the  pages,  the  amount  of 
two-thirds  of  the  breadth  of  the  head-sticks,  and  the  same  for 
the  inner  margin,  that  reaches  from  the  foot  of  the  fifth  page  to 
the  centre  of  the  groove  for  the  points;  and  from  the  centre  of 
that  groove  to  the  pages  of  the  quire,  or  that  cut  off,  they  allow 
half  of  the  breadth  of  the  head-stick.  As  to  the  margin  along 
the  long  cross,  it  is  governed  by  the  gutter-sticks;  and  it  is 
common  to  put  as  much  on  each  side  of  the  long  cross  as 
amounts  tc  half  the  breadth  of  the  gutter-stick,  without  deduct- 
ing almost  any  thing  for  the  long  cross,  since  that  makes 
allowance  for  the  inequality  of  the  outer  margin- 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  173 

Thus  much  may  suffice  about  making  margin  the  above  way, 
which  is  laid  down  in  Smith's  Grammar,,  published  in  1755. 
We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  the  plan  adopted  by  us,  which 
seems  to  be  much  more  simple  in  its  arrangement  than  any  we 
have  noticed  in  the  various  works  upon  this  subject.  Having 
laid  our  pages  as  nearly  as  possible  in  their  proper  places  on 
the  stone,  with  a  suitable  chase  around  them,  we  fold  a  sheet 
of  paper  which  has  been  wetted  for  the  work,  or  one  of  the 
same  size,  into  as  many  portions  as  there  are  pages  in  the 
form,  and  holding  the  sheet  thus  folded  on  the  first  or  left  hand 
page  of  the  form,  one  edge  even  with  the  left  hand  side  of  the 
types,  we  place  the  adjoining  page  so  that  its  left  side  may  be 
even  with  the  right  hand  edge  of  the  folded  paper,  which  will 
leave  a  sufficient  space  between  the  two  pages  to  admit  the 
gutter  stick,  which  should  then  be  selected  of  a  proper  width  to 
suit  the  form  in  hand,  as  follows : — In  Octavos,  about  a  Great 
Primer  less  in  width  than  the  space  between  the  pages,  as 
determined  by  the  above  rule;  in  Duodecimos,  about  a  Pica 
less;  in  Sixteens,  about  a  Long  Primer,  and  proportionably 
less  as  the  number  of  pages  are  increased.  Having  thus  secured 
the  proper  width  for  the  gutter  sticks,  we  cut  them  according  to 
the  rules  laid  down  for  that  purpose,  and  holding  one  of  them 
between  the  two  pages  above  the  page  cord,  close  the  pages  up 
to  it ;  we  then  open  our  folded  sheet  so  as  to  cover  the  two 
pages,  and  bringing  the  fold  in  the  paper  exactly  in  the  middle 
of  the  gutter  stick,  we  secure  it  there  with  the  point  of  a  pen- 
knife or  bodkin  ;  the  right  hand  edge  of  the  paper  thus  opened, 
must  be  brought  to  the  centre  of  the  cross  bar,  which  determines 
the  furniture  required  between  it  and  the  pages.  Having  thus 
arranged  our  margins  for  the  back  and  fore  edge  of  the  book, 
\ve  proceed  in  like  manner  to  regulate  the  head  and  foot  mar- 
gins, by  bringing  the  near  edge  of  the  folded  paper  even  with 
the  bottom  of  the  first  page,  and  so  placing  the  adjoining  off 
page,  that  its  head  may  be  barely  covered  by  the  oifedge  of  the 
folded  paper,  which  will  give  the  required  head  margin;  all 
other  sections  of  the  form  must  be  regulated  by  the  foregoing 
measurements,  when  our  margins  for  the  whole  sheet  will  be 
found  correct. 


174  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

In  imposing  jobs  where  two  or  more  of  the  same  size, 
requiring  equal  margins,  are  to  be  worked  together,,  we  fold  our 
paper  to  the  size  appropriate  for  each,  and  so  arrange  our  types, 
that  the  distance  from  the  left  side  of  one  page  to  the  left  side 
of  the  adjoining  one,  shall  be  exactly  equal  to  the  width  of  the 
folded  paper,  as  before  described. 

All  that  has  been  said  concerning  making  margin,  relates 
properly  to  imposing  the  first  sheet  of  a  work;  for  after  that  is 
truly  dressed,  a  second,  or  more  sheets,  may  be  dressed  with 
less  trouble;  for  then  we  impose  from  wrought-off  forms,  where 
we  have  nothing  else  to  do  but  to  put  the  chase  and  furniture 
about  the  pages,  in  the  same  manner  as  we  take  it  off  the  form 
we  are  stripping;  after  which  we  untie  the  pages  to  make  room 
for  the  quoins,  which  we  put  to  each  quarter  in  the  same  order 
as  we  take  them  off  the  form  we  impose  from. 

Having  dressed  the  inside  of  our  pages,  we  then  place  side 
and  foot  sticks  to  their  outsides;  being  thus  secured  by  the 
furniture,  we  next  untie  them,  quarter  after  quarter,  the  inner 
page  first,  and  then  the  outer,  at  the  same  time  forcing  the 
letter  towards  the  crosses,  and  using  every  precaution  to  pre- 
vent the  pages  from  hanging  or  leaning;  and  in  order  to  guard 
against  accidents,  when  the  quarter  is  untied,  we  secure  it  with 
a  couple  of  quoins. 

By  observing  a  proper  method  in  cutting  up  new  furniture, 
the  same  will  be  serviceable  for  other  works,  as  well  as  the  one 
for  which  it  is  intended,  even  though  the  size  of  the  page  may 
differ,  provided  it  agrees  with  the  margin  of  the  paper.  The 
gutters  should  be  cut  two  or  three  lines  longer  than  the  page ; 
the  head-sticks  wider;  the  back  furniture  may  run  nearly  down 
to  the  rim  of  the  chase,  but  must  be  level  with  the  top  of 'the 
page,  which  will  admit  of  the  inner  head-stick  running  in;  the 
difference  of  the  outer  head-stick  may  go  over  the  side-stick, 
and  the  gutter  will  then  run  up  between  them.  The  side-stick 
only  need  to  be  cut  exact,  and  the  furniture  will  completely 
justify. 

We  then  proceed  to  locking  up  our  forms;  first  carefully 
examining  whether  the  pages  of  each  quarter  are  of  an  exact 
length,  for  even  -the  difference  of  a  lead  will  cause  them  to 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  175 

hang.  We  ascertain  their  exactness  by  placing  the  ball  of  each 
thumb  against  the  centre  of  the  foot-stick,,  raising  it  a  little  with 
the  pressure,  and  if  the  ends  of  both  pages  rise  equal  with  the 
stick,  it  is  a  proof  they  will  riot  bind ;  we  then  fit  quoins  be- 
tween the  side  and  foot-stick  of  each  quarter  and  the  chase,  till 
the  whole  form  may  be  raised.  And  though  locking  up  a  form 
may  be  thought  a  trifling  function,  it  demands  our  attention, 
nevertheless,  in  several  instances.  When  we  have  pushed  the 
quoins  as  far  as  we  can,  with  our  fingers,  we  make  use  of  the 
mallet  and  shooting-stick,  and  gently  drive  the  quoins  along  the 
foot-sticks  first,  and  then  those  along  the  side-sticks,  taking  care 
to  use  an  equal  force  in  our  strokes,  and  to  drive  the  quoins  far 
enough  up  the  shoulders  of  the  side  and  foot-sticks,  that  the 
letter  may  neither  belly  out  one  way  nor  hang  in  the  other;  and 
as  to  the  lower  quoins,  they  ought  to  be  driven  to  a  station 
where  they  may  do  the  office  of  keeping  the  letter  straight  and 
even.  And  here  we  may  venture  to  disprove  of  the  custom  of 
slanting  quoins  on  both  sides,  and  planing  their  edges  and  cor- 
ners off,  whereby  all  the  bevelled-off  parts  are  rendered  ineffectual 
to  do  the  office  of  a  quoin  or  wedge;  for  the  slanted  side  of  a 
quoin  running  against  the  square  side  of  fhe  chase,  must  needs 
carry  a  cavity  with  it,  and  consequently  be  void  of  binding  with 
equal  force  in  every  part.  As  to  the  edges  that  are  planed  off 
across  the  two  ends  of  a  quoin,  the  want  of  them  causes  the 
shooting-stick  to  fly  off  the  quoin  at  almost  every  hard  stroke 
of  the  mallet,  because  the  quoin  end  of  the  shooting-stick  is 
rounded  off;  for  which  reason  we  should  choose  to  have  thai 
end  cut  to  suit  the  angle  of  the  quoin  and  imposing  stone,  when 
the  stick  is  held  in  a  proper  position. 

It  often  occurs  that  the  quoins,  from,  having  been  locked  up 
wet,  stick  so  tight  to  the  furniture  as  to  render  it  troublesome  to 
unlock  them :  in  such  cases  the  inconvenience  is  remedied  by 
driving  the  quoin  up  instead  of  down,  which  immediately 
loosens  it,  and  it  unlocks  with  ease. 

Our  form,  or  forms,  being  now  locked  up,  and  become  porta- 
ble, we  remove  them  to  the  proof-press,  and  pull  a  proof  of 
them;  we  then  rub  them  over  with  a  wet  lie-brush,  put  them  in 
the  rack,  and  deliver  the  proof-sheets  and  copy  to  the  reader. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

CORRECTORS  AND  CORRECTING. 

IT  has  ever  been  the  pursuit  of  eminent  printers  to  aim  at 
accuracy,  by  their  particular  care  that  the  effects  of  their 
profession  should  appear  without  faults  and  errors,  not  only 
whh  respect  to  wrong  letters  and  false  spelling,  but  chiefly  in 
regard  to  their  correcting  and  illustrating  such  words  and  pas- 
sages as  are  not  fully  explained  or  expressed,  or  are  obscurely 
written  in  the  copy.  The  office  of  corrector  is  not  to  be  applied 
to  one  that  has  merely  a  tolerable  judgment  of  his  mother 
tongue,  but  who  has  some  knowledge  of  such  languages  as  are 
in  frequent  use,  viz.  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  Italian  and 
German,  and  possesses  a  quick  and  discerning  eye — these  are 
the  accomplishments  by  which  a  corrector  may  raise  his  own 
and  his  employer's  credit;  for  it  is  a  maxim  with  booksellers  to 
give  the  first  edition  of  a  work  to  be  done  by  such  printers 
whom  they  know  to  be  either  able  correctors  themselves,  or  that 
employ  fit  persons,  though  not  of  universal  learning,  and  who 
know  the  fundamentals  of  every  art  and  science  that  may  fall 
under  their  examination.  We  say,  examination;  for  in  cases 
where  a  corrector  is  not  acquainted  with  the  subject  before  him, 
he,  together  with  the  person  that  reads  to  him,  can  do  no  more 
than  literally  compare  and  cross-examine  the  proof  by  the 
original,  without  altering  either  the  spelling  or  punctuation; 
since  it  is  an  author's  province  to  prevent  mistakes  in  such  case, 
either  by  delivering  his  copy  very  accurate,  and  fairly  written, 
or  by  carefully  perusing  the  proof-sheet. 

What  is  chiefly  required  of  a  corrector,  besides  espying  literal 
faults,  is  to  spell  and  point  after  the  prevailing  method  and 
genius  of  each  particular  language:  but  these  being  two  points 
that  never  will  be  reconciled,  but  always  afford  employment  for 
pedantic  critics,  every  corrector  ought  to  fix  upon  a  method  to 
spell  ambiguous  words  and  compounds  always  the  same  way. 


TYPOGRAPHIC  177 

And  that  the  compositors  may  become  acquainted  with  and 
accustomed  to  his  way  of  spelling,  the  best  expedient  will  be  to 
draw  out  by  degrees,  a  catalogue  of  such  ambiguous  words  and 
compounds. 

As  it  is  necessary  that  correctors  should  understand  languages, 
so  it  is  requisite  that  they  should  be  acquainted  with  the  nature 
of  printing,  else  they  will  be  apt  to  expose  themselves  in  object- 
ing against  several  things  that  are  done  according  to  method 
and  practice  in  printing.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  correctors,  in 
most  printing-offices,  are  chosen  out  of  compositors  that  are 
thought  capable  of  that  office,  and  who  know  how  not  only  to 
correct  literal  faults,  but  can  also  discern  where  improprieties  in 
workmanship  are  used,  which  cannot  he  expected  in  gentlemen 
who  have  not  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  printing;  and  it  would 
be  very  ungenerous  in  a  compositor  to  swerve  from  the  common 
rules  in  practice,  because  the  corrector  is  not  printer  enough  to 
find  fault  with  it. 

Inaccuracy  may  proceed  either  from  inattention  and  careless- 
ness in  the  printer,  or  else  to  his  non-acquaintance  with  all 
languages,  both  ancient  and  modern;  also  to  a  deficiency  of 
knowledge  in  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  other  abstruse  subjects, 
wherein  technical  phrases  and  terms  often  occur,  which,  unless 
very  distinctly  written,  may  be  misunderstood  by  the  most 
attentive  and  accurate  corrector. 

If  attention  be  paid  to  right  spelling  of  proper  names  of  per- 
sons, places,  technical  terms,  &LC.  the  finishing  of  sentences 
marked  by  the  period,  that  the  author's  ideas  may  not  be 
misunderstood,  and  the  hand- writing  tolerably  legible,  much 
time,  and  a  very  considerable  expense  would  be  saved,  and  the 
great  object  of  accuracy  gained,  by  gentlemen  who  communi- 
cate their  sentiments  to  the  public  through  the  medium  of  the 


178  TYPOGRAPHICAL    MARKS    EXEMPLIFIED. 

THOUGH  a  variety  of  opinions  exist  as  to 
the  individual  by  wi{om.  the  art  of  printing  was     tf 
first  discovered;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting    Peter   Schoeffer  to   be  the    person  3<g^L^ 
who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 
<  X)    the  art  -el1  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gut- 
5Q    tembergsj,    he  is  also  supposed    to  have  been  ? 
6  ;{f    the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.     The  H 

A  A  / 

following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,  8  ?y 
by    Jo.    Fred.    Faustus,    of    AschefFenburg:  <^j:  6 
•°g>f  Peter   Schoeffer,   of    Gernsheim,    perceiving    G?&?  / 

11  W  his  master  Fausts  design,  and  being  himself 

12  f  desirous\ardently)  to  improve  the   art,   found 

out    (by    the  good   providence    of    God)   the 

13 

method  of  cutting   (inc!Jc*c?i)  the  characters     t 

in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 

>  I  singly   castj    instead   of  bieng   cut.     He  pri- 

14   I    vately  cut  matnces]^  for  the  whole  alphabet: 

""  Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the   contrivap^f 

/that  he  promised  Jfeter  to  give  him  b4s  only 

16   /daughter   Christina    in    marriage/a   promise 

/which  he  soon  after  performedX; 
19      /    OBut  there  were,  man  v/clifficulties   at  first     n&    II 

d^l  A          '^/f 

I  with  these   letters,  ^^there  had  been   before 
204.    \vith  wooden   op^s,  tne  metal  being  too  soft3 
to  support  .}Xe  force   of  the  im  pression  :  but 
this    de^ct  was    soon    remedied,   by   mixing  9    / 

3      /  21 

a^xTbstance  with  the  metal  which  sufficiently  ^r.  12 
°  O/hardened  it/ 


-a 


nd  wnen  ne  snowed  nt*>  mantel 


TYPOGRAPHICAL    MARKS    EXEMPLIFIED.  179 

THOUGH  a  variety  of  opinions  exist  as  to 
the  individual  by  whom  the  art  of  printing  was 
first  discovered;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
-  admitting  PETER  SCHOEFFER  to  be  the 
person  who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having 
learned  the  art  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the 
Guttembergs :  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  who  engraved  on  copper-plates.  The 
following  testimony  is  preserved  in  the  family, 
by  Jo.  Fred.  Faustus,  of  AschefTenburg: 

f  PETER  SCHOEFFER,  of  Gernsheim,  perceiv- 
ing his  master  Faust's  design,  and  being  him- 
self ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out  (by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the 
method  of  cutting  (incidendi)  the  characters  in 
a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be  singly 
cast,  instead  of  being  cut.  He  privately  cut 
matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet:  and  when  he 
showed  his  master  the  letters  cast  from  these 
matrices,  Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the  con- 
trivance, that  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him 
his  only  daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a 
promise  which  he  soon  after  performed.  But 
there  were  as  many  difficulties  at  first  with 
these  letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with 
wooden  ones,  the  metal  being  too  soft  to  sup- 
port the  force  of  the  impression :  but  this  defect 
was  soon  remedied,  by  mixing  the  metal  with 

a  substance  which  sufficiently  hardened  it.' 
16 


180  TYPOGRAPH1A. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  CORRECTIONS. 

A  WRONG  letter  in  a  word  is  noticed  by  drawing  a  short  per- 
pendicular line  through  it,  and  making  another  short  line  in  the 
margin,  behind  which  the  right  letter  is  placed.  (See  No.  1.) 
In  this  manner  whole  words  are  corrected,,  by  drawing  a  line 
across  the  wrong  word,,  and  making  the  right  one  in  the  mar- 
gin, opposite  the  faulty  line. 

A  turned  letter  is  noticed  by  drawing  a  line  through  it,  and 
the  mark  No.  2  in  the  margin.  If  a  corrector  is  not  able  to  dis- 
tinguish such  turned  letters  as  have  a  resemblance  to  others,  it 
is  much  better  to  mark  such  letters  in  the  margin. 

If  letters  or  words  are  to  be  altered  from  one  character  to 
another,  a  parallel  line  or  lines  should  be  made  underneath  the 
word  or  letter,  viz.  for  capitals,  three  lines;  small  capitals,  two 
lines,  and  Italic,  one  line :  and  write  in  the  margin  opposite  the 
line  where  the  alteration  occurs,  Caps,  Small  Caps,  or  Ital. 
(See  No.  3.) 

When  letters  or  words  are  set  double,  or  are  required  to  be 
taken  out,  a  line  is  drawn  through  the  superfluous  word  or 
letter,  and  the  mark  No.  4,  placed  opposite  in  the  margin. 

Where  the  punctuation  requires  to  be  altered,  the  colon, 
and  period,  if  marked  in  the  margin,  should  be  encircled. 
(See  No.  5.) 

Where  a  space  is  wanting  between  two  words  or  letters 
which  are  to  be  separated,  a  caret  must  be  made  where  the 
separation  ought  to  be,  and  the  sign,  No.  6,  placed  opposite  in 
the  margin. 

No.  7  describes  the  manner  in  which  the  hyphen  and  ellipsis 
line  are  marked. 

Should  a  letter  have  been  omitted,  a  caret  is  put  at  the  place, 
and  the  letter  marked  as  No.  8. 

Where  words  or  letters  that  should  join  are  separated,  or 
when  a  line  is  too  wide  spaced,  the  mark  No.  9,  must  be  placed 
under  it,  and  the  junction  signified  by  that  in  the  margin. 

Where  a  new  paragraph  is  required,  a  quadrangle  is  drawn 
in  the  margin,  and  a  caret  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sen- 
tence. (See  No.  10.) 


TYPOGRAPHIA  181 

No.  11  shows  the  way  in  which  the  apostrophe,  inverted 
commas,  the  star,  and  other  references  and  superior  letters  and 
figures  are  marked. 

Where  two  words  are  transposed, -the  word  placed  wrong 
should  be  encircled,  and  the  mark  No.  12  placed  in  the  margin  : 
but  where  several  words  require  to  be  transposed,  their  right 
order  is  signified  by  a  figure  placed  over  each  word,  and  the 
mark,  No.  12,  in  the  margin. 

Where  words  have  been  struck  out  that  have  afterwards 
been  approved  of,  dots  should  be  marked  under  such  words, 
and  in  the  margin  write  Stet.  (See  No.  13.) 

Where  a  space  sticks  up  between  two  words,  a  horizontal 
line  is  drawn  under  it,  and  the  mark,  No.  14,  placed  opposite, 
in  the  margin. 

Where  several  lines  or  words  are  added,  they  should  be 
written  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  drawn  from  the 
place  where  the  insertion  begins,  to  those  lines  or  words.  (See 
No.  15.)  But  if  more  is  added  than  can  be  contained  at  the 
foot  of  the  page,  write  in  the  margin,  Out,  see  copy,  and  enclose 
the  omission  between  brackets,  and  insert  the  word  Out,  in  the 
margin  of  the  copy. 

Where  letters  or  lines  stand  crooked,  they  are  noticed  by 
drawing  lines  before  and  after  them;  but  where  a  page  hangs, 
lines  are  drawn  across  the  entire  part  affected.  (See  No.  16.) 

When  a  smaller  or  larger  letter,  of  a  different  fount,  is  im- 
properly introduced  into  the  page,  it  is  noticed  by  the  mark, 
No.  17,  which  signifies  wrong  fount. 

If  a  paragraph  is  improperly  made,  a  line  should  be  drawn 
from  the  broken-off  matter  to  the  next  paragraph,  and  write  in 
the  margin,  JVo  1.  (See  No.  18.) 

Where  a  word  or  words  have  been  left  out,  or  are  to  be 
added,  a  caret  must  be  made  in  the  place  where  they  are  in- 
tended to  come  in,  and  the  word  or  words  written  in  the  margin 
(See  No.  19.) 

Where  a  faulty  letter  appears,  it  is  marked  by  making  a  cross 
under  it,  and  placing  a  similar  one  in  the  margin,  though  some 
prefer  to  draw  a  perpendicular  line  through  it  as  in  the  case  of 
a  wrong  letter.  (See  No.  20.) 


182  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

CORRECTING  IN  THE  METAL. 

BY  correcting,  we  understand  the  rectifying  of  such  faults, 
omissions,  and  repetitions,  as  are  made  by  the  compositor,  either 
through  inadvertency  or  carelessness.  And  though  the  term  of 
corrections  is  equally  given  tP  the  alterations  that  are  made  by 
authors,  it  would  be  more  proper  to  distinguish  them  by  the 
name  of  emendations;  notwithstanding  it  often  happens,  that 
after  repeatedly  mending  the  matter,  the  first  conceptions  are  at 
last  recalled :  for  the  truth  thereof  none  can  be  better  vouchers 
than  compositors,  who  often  suffer  by  fickle  authors  that  know 
no  end  to  making  alterations,  and  at  last  doubt  whether  they 
are  right  or  wrong ;  whereby  the  work  is  retarded,  and  the  com- 
positor greatly  prejudiced  in  his  endeavors;  especially  where  he 
is  not  sufficiently  satisfied  for  spending  his  time  in  humoring 
such  whimsical  gentlemen. 

Correcting  is  the  most  disagreeable  part  of  a  compositor's 
business,  attended  not  only  with  loss  of  time,  but  great  fatigue, 
from  leaning  over  the  stone,  and  is  therefore  extremely  prejudi- 
cial to  health.  To  avoid  this  we  recommend  silence,  and 
attention  when  at  work.  The  noise  and  confusion  which  too 
often  prevail  in  a  printing-office,  from  light  and  frivolous  con- 
versation, not  only  retard  business,  but  at  the  same  time  distract 
the  attention  of  the  compositor  from  the  subject  he  has  in  hand, 
and  cause  him  to  run  into  such  mistakes  as  can  only  be  rectified 
by  loss  of  time,  and  fatigue  at  the  imposing  stone.  Some  men, 
no  doubt,  are  capable  of  supporting  a  conversation,  and  at  the 
same  time  compose  correctly,  but  their  noise  must  confuse 
those  who  are  unable  to  preserve  that  accuracy  but  in  quiet, 
and  by  close  attention  to  their  copy.  The  press-room  should, 
it  possible,  be  separated  from  the  composing-room,  as  the  press- 
men are  generally  discussing  some  important  topic,  and  are 
less  liable  to  feel  the  inconvenience  of  much  talking. 

The  first  proof  should  merely  contain  the  errors  of  the  com- 
positor, but  it  too  frequently  happens  that  the  corrector  heightens 
them  by  his  peculiarities;  when  this  is  unnecessarily  done,  it  is 
an  act  of  injustice  to  the  compositor:  it  is  sufficient  for  him  to 
rectifv  such  mistakes  as  arise  either  from  inattention  or  want 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  183 

of  judgment.  By  the  term,  "want  of  judgment,''  we  beg  not 
to  be  understood  as  including  the  alteration  of  points,  thai  being 
a  subject  which  can  never  be  reconciled:  the  compositor  ought 
not  to  suffer  from  the  caprice  of  a  reader,  in  altering  commas 
and  semicolons  in  the  first  proof  (unless  the  sense  is  perverted,) 
which  he  not  unfrequently  re-alters  in  the  second,  from  a  doubt 
upon  his  mind  which  would  be  the  most  proper  points  to  be 
adopted. 

We  certainly  agree,  in  conjunction  with  all  our  contempo- 
raries, with  the  necessity  for  the  immediate  correction  of  proofs 
by  the  compositor;  still  we  consider  that  we  should  not  have 
performed  our  duty,  (according  to  our  original  intention,)  were 
we  to  urge  an  ex  parte  case,  when  a  similar  injunction  is  equally 
incumbent  on  both  parties.  Ought  not  the  reader  or  overseer  to 
be  equally  as  punctual  in  despatching  the  proofs  in  his  depart- 
ment? Can  it  reasonably  be  expected  that  the  compositor  will 
feel  that  inclination  to  forward  his  proof,  when  he  knows  that 
the  reader  will  not  equally  assist  him? 

Should  a  compositor  have  transposed  two  or  more  pages, 
either  from  a  mistake  in  the  folios,  or  any  other  cause,  he  must 
then  unlock  such  quarter  or  quarters,  and  loosening  the  cross 
or  crosses  from  the  furniture,  he  n<>xt  lifts  the  chase  and  the 
remaining  quarters  off  the  stone;  should  he  have  furniture 
sufficient  round  each  page,  he  may  move  them  into  their  pro- 
per stations  by  pressing  the  balls  of  his  thumbs  and  fingers 
against  the  furniture  at  the  head,  foot,  and  sides  of  each  page: — 
if  the  letter  be  small,  it  will  be  advisable  to  wet  the  pages, 
because  few  imposing  stones  are  horizontal,  or  so  steady  that 
they  will  not  shake  when  touched,  or  by  the  motion  of  the  floor, 
occasioned  either  by  persons  walking,  or  the  dragging  of  forms. 

Should  a  compositor  find  that  his  pages  hang,  he  must  unlock 
that  quarter  or  quarters,  and  pat  the  face  of  the  type  with  the 
balls  of  his  fingers,  and  so  twist  it,  until  he  g^ts  it  into  a  square 
position. 

When  a  compositor  unlocks  his  form,  he  should  be  careful 
not  to  leave  the  unlocked  quoins  too  slack,  as  the  force  neces- 
sary to  loosen  the  others  may  either  sqiuMs  the  matter,  01 
occasion  it  to  hans?. 

16* 


184  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

A  compositor  should  possess  the  following  requisites  before 
he  begins  to  correct^- 

"What  is  required  of  a  compositor  when  he  goes  about  cor- 
recting a  foul  proof,  is  a  sharp  bodkin  and  patience,  because 
without  them  the  letter  cannot  escape  suffering  by  the  steel ; 
and  hurrying  will  not  permit  him  to  justify  the  lines  true.  No 
wonder,  therefore,  to  see  pigeon-holes  in  one  place,  and  pi  in 
another."* 

It  is  too  well  known  to  all  compositors,,  the  delay  and  incon 
venience  (not  to  say  actual  loss,)  which  they  daily  suffer  from 
the  want  of  a  regular  despatch  of  proofs;  it  is  not  for  us  to  say 
whether  it  arises  from  an  overpressure  of  business,  or  whatever 
cause ;  but  this  we  can  state,  (having  not  only  repeatedly  wit- 
nessed it,  but  also  greatly  suffered  from  it  ourselves,)  that  there 
are  some  overseers  who  do  not  give  themselves  the  least  con- 
cern about  reading  proofs,  (provided  the  work  is  not  in  a  par- 
ticular hurry)  as  long  as  the  compositor  can  rake  together  more 
letter  to  make  up :  at  length,  being  run  out  of  sorts,  he  is  neces- 
sitated to  press  for  his  proofs,  and  should  the  reader  then  have 
leisure,  he  probably  receives  the  whole  of  them  as  fast  as  he 
can  correct,  which  is  very  much  to  his  disadvantage  in  two 
points  of  view : — first,  he  has  to  perform  a  disagreeable  task, 
which  lakes  longer  time  than  if  he  had  received  them  as  they 
were  imposed,  because  much  correcting  fatigues,  and  makes  a 
man  careless,  that  would  otherwise  have  done  his  work  more 
justice:  secondly,  should  his  proofs  turn  out  foul,  and  take  up 

*  In  proof  of  the  trouble  and  inconvenience  to  which  compositors  are 
not  unfrequently  subjected,  we  present  the  reader  with  the  following 
epitaph,  which,  no  doubt,  was  written  by  a  Typo,  while  performing  tho 
most  disagreeable  task  attendant  on  his  profession: 

"No  more  shall  copy  bad  perplex  my  brain, 

No  more  shall  type's  small  face  my  eye-balls  strain  ; 

No  more  the  proofs  foul  page  create  me  troubles, 

By  errors,  transpositions,  outs,  and  doubles: 

No  more  my  head  shall  ache  from  author's  whims, 

As  overrunnings,  driving-outs,  and  ins; 

The  surly  pressman's  frown  I  now  may  scoff, 

Revised,  corrected,  finally  wrought  off." 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  185 

a  considerable  time,  his  bill  for  that  week  must  be  greatly- 
diminished,  as  few  men  make  allowance  from  their  week's 
earnings,  for  the  corrections  which  may  occur  in  the  following 
one.  We  ever  shall  contend,  be  the  station  of  the  parties 
what  it  may,  high  or  low,  rich  or  poor,  for  "  equal  rights,  and 
equal  laws." 

When  the  compositor  has  as  many  corrections  between  the 
thumb  and  fore-finger  of  his  left  hand  as  he  can  conveniently 
hold,  or  in  his  composing-stick,  beginning  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page,  in  order  that  they  may  follow  regularly;  and  an  assortment 
of  spaces  on  a  piece  of  paper,  or,  what  is  more  convenient,  in 
a  small  square  box,  with  partitions  in  it,  let  him  take  the  bod- 
kin in  his  right  hand,  and  instead  of  raising  each  letter  he  may 
have  to  alter,  he  should  place  the  point  of  the  bodkin  at  one 
end  of  the  line,  and  with  the  fore-finger  of  his  left  hand  against 
the  other,  raise  the  line  altogether,  sufficiently  high  to  afford 
him  a  clear  view  of  the  spacing;  he  may  then  change  the  faulty 
letter,  and  alter  his  spacing  before  he  drops  the  line.  By  ob- 
serving this  method,  he  will  not  injure  the  type,  which  must  be 
the  case  where  the  bodkin  is  forced  either  into  their  sides  or 
heads;  it  likewise  ensures  a  greater  degree  of  regularity  where 
there  may  be  occasion  to  alter  the  spacing,  and  will  not  take  up 
more  time  than  the  other  method. 

In  tables,  and  such  like  matter,  where  rules  prevent  the  lines 
from  being  raised,  as  just  noticed,  the  letters  must  be  then  drawn 
up  by  the  bodkin;  this  is  done  by  the  compositor  holding  the 
latter  fast  in  his  right  hand,  with  the  blade  between  his  fore- 
finger and  thumb,  within  about  half  an  inch  or  three  quarters 
of  the  point,  thus  guiding  it  steadily  to  the  faulty  letter,  he 
slicks  the  point  of  the  bodkin  into  the  neck  of  the  letter,  between 
the  beard  and  the  face,  and  thus  draws  it  up  above  the  other 
types,  so  that  he  can  take  it  out  with  the  fore-finger  and  thumb 
of  his  left  hand.  In  performing  this  operation,  as  small  an 
angle  as  possible  should  be  made  with  the  blade  of  the  bodkin, 
viz.  it  should  be  kept  as  flat  as  possible  to  the  face  of  the  type, 
but  the  blade  of  the  bodkin  should  not  touch  any  of  the  sur- 
round ins;  neighbors  of  the  faulty  letter,  as  the  slightest  graze 
Imaginable  must  injure  their  face,  and  consequently  they  will 


186  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

appear  imperfect  in  the  next  proof,  when  he  will  have  the 
trouble  of  altering  them,  and  his  employer  suffers  the  loss  oi 
his  type;  we  are  again  brought  to  the  union  of  interest  between 
the  parties. 

The  reason  why  the  bodkin  blade  should  be  kept  flat  to  the 
form  is,,  because  a  small  horizontal  entrance  of  its  point  into  the 
neck  of  the  letter,  will  raise  it  above  the  face  of  the  form;  but 
should  the  bodkin  be  held  nearly  upright,  it  would  not  have 
sufficient  purchase  to  draw  the  letter  up,  because  the  weight  of 
the  type  and  its  close  confinement,  would  have  greater  power 
than  the  sharp  point  of  the  steel.  By  pressing  sideways,  the 
bodkin  blade  acts  as  a  lever,  even  though  it  has  no  other  pur- 
chase than  merely  the  slight  motion  of  the  hand. 

The  most  careful  compositor  cannot  at  all  times  avoid  leaving 
a  word  or  words  out,  or  composing  the  same  word  twice; 
when  this  happens,  he  should  consider  the  best  mode  of  recti- 
fying the  accident,  by  driving  out  or  getting  in,  either  above 
the  error  or  below  it;  this  ascertained,  let  the  matter  betaken 
into  a  galley,  and  overrun  in  the  composing-stick:  overrunning 
on  the  stone  is  an  unsafe,  unworkmanlike,  and  dilatory  method, 
destroys  the  justification,  and  renders  the  spacing  uneven. 

One  of  our  predecessors  gives  the  following: — 

"But  a  great  deal  of  trouble  might  be  saved  in  cases  of  outs 
and  doubles,  would  correctors  try  to  add  as  much  as  will  fill  up 
the  double,  or  to  shorten  the  matter,  to  make  room  for  an  out; 
unless  both  the  one  and  the  other  are  too  considerable  for  that 
expedient;  which  otherwise  might  be  safely  ventured,  without 
either  castrating  or  corrupting  a  writer's  meaning.  This  would 
be  a  sure  means  to  secure  a  neat  compositor's  workmanship, 
and  care  in  true  spacing  his  matter;  whereas  that  beauty  is  lost 
by  alterations  and  overrunning." 

In  correcting,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  hair-space  a  line, 
if  it  can  possibly  be  prevented,  but  avoid  it  by  overrunning 
either  back  or  forward.  He  should  also  in  overrunning  the 
^natter,  use  the  division  as  little  as  possible;  for  though  he  may 
carefully  follow  the  instructions  laid  down  in  this  work,  on  the 
subject  of  spacing  and  dividing,  yet  the  effect  of  his  attention 
will  be  completely  destroyed,  if  not  followed  up  at  the  stone. 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


187 


The  following  observation  has  been  made  with  respect  to  the 
despatch  of  proofs: — 

"  The  first  proof  being  corrected,  a  perfect  sheet  is  pullec 
clean,  to  be  sent  to  the  author,  or  to  the  person  by  him  author- 
ised ;  either  of  whom,  if  they  understand  the  nature  of  printing, 
will  not  defer  reading  the  sheet,  but  return  it  without  any 
alteration  perhaps,  to  be  made  ready  for  the  press.  But  because 
such  good  authors  are  very  scarce,  compositors  are  discouraged 
every  time  they  send  a  proof -away,  not  knowing  when  or  how 
it  may  be  returned,  and  how  many  times  more  it  will  be  wanted 
to  be  seen  again,  before  the  author  is  tired,  or  rather  ashamed, 
of  alter  ins:.7' 


Ye  Authors  list !  we  must  a  tale  unfold, 
Which,  doubtless,  some  of  you  have  oft  been  told, 
You  little  dream  how  much  poor  Typo's  vex'd, 
When  with  bad  copy  his  mind's  sore  perplex' d  ; 
Nor  is  this  all,  he  still  has  cause  to  dread 
The  Reader's  gall,  when  first  his  proof  is  read  ; 
Corrected  now,  to  you  'tis  strait  convey'd, 
And  in  a  trice  the  greatest  havoc's  made; 
The  proofs  return' d — the  Chapel's  members  all 
Rush  to  the  stone,  obedient  to  his  call, 
Aloud  they  roar — enough  to  strike  him  dead, 
"  A  mob,  a  mob,  th*  riot  act  must  be  read  /" 
His  grief  to  soothe — they,  sympathising,  bawl, 
"Patience  and  a  sharp  bodkin  cares  all  /" 
His  form,  with  heavy  heart,  he  then  lays  up, 
And  letters  seeks,  which  fills  his  bitter  cup  : 
How  often,  when  correcting  at  the  stone, 
He's  prayed  for  you,  while  breaking  his  breast-bo',ie 
Reflect,  when  next  you  wield  your  potent,  quills, 
And  spare  the  printer  all  these  dreaded  ills ; 
Revise,  transcribe,  and  make  your  copy  right, 
Thus  save  his  labor  and  his  precious  sight! 


188  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  A  READER. 

HAVING  just  given  an  account  of  the  nature  of  correcting,  and 
the  duties  of  a  corrector,  we  deem  it  not  improper,  considering 
the  vast  importance  of  this  branch  of  our  profession,  to  enter 
somewhat  more  minutely  into  the  subject. 

When  it  is  considered  how  much  the  credit  of  our  art,  and 
the  general  interest  of  literature  depend  on  the  grammatical 
accuracy  and  typographical  correctness  of  our  labors,  it  will 
readily  appear  that  a  careful  and  steady  Reader  must  be  indis- 
pensable in  every  printing  office.  We  shall  therefore  detail  the 
business  and  qualifications  requisite  to  form  such  a  reader,  or 
corrector  of  the  press,  as  can  alone  save  the  typographic  art 
from  degenerating  into  one  of  those  ordinary  occupations  that 
require  only  the  mechanical  operation  of  the  fingers,  to  form  a 
perfect  and  complete  workman. 

It  is  always  desirable  that  a  reader  should  have  been  pre- 
viously brought  up  a  compositor.  By  his  practical  acquaintance 
with  the  mechanical  departments  of  the  business,  he  will  be 
better  able  to  detect  those  manifold  errata  which,  unperceived 
by  the  mere  man  of  learning  and  science,  lie  lurking,  as  it 
were,  in  a  thousand  different  forms,  in  every  sheet ;  and,  if 
overlooked,  evince  a  carelessness  and  inattention  to  our  labors, 
that  must  always  offend  the  just  taste  and  professional  discern- 
ment of  all  true  lovers  of  correct  and  beautiful  typography. 

Some  of  the  principal  imperfections  which  are  most  easily 
observed  by  the  man  of  practical  knowledge  in  the  art  of  print- 
ing, are  the  following:  viz.  imperfect  and  wrong-founted,  or 
inverted  letters,  particularly  the  lower-case  n,  o,  s,  and  the  u; 
awkward  and  irregular  spacing;  uneven  pages  or  columns;  a 
false  disposition  of  the  reference  marks;  crookedness  in  words 
and  lines;  bad  making-up  of  matter;  erroneous  indention,  &,c. 
These  minutice,  which  are  rather  imperfections  of  workman- 
ship, than  literal  errors,  are  apt  to  be  overlooked  and  neglected 
by  those  readers  who  have  no  idea  of  the  liability  there  is,  even 
with  the  most  careful  compositor,  occasionally  to  fall  into  them. 

It  is  desirable  that  a  reader  should  have  been  brought  up  a 
compositor,  because  the  imperfections  above  enumerated  may 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  189 

not  be  observed  by  one  who  is  not  practically  acquainted  with 
every  department  of  the  art.  Nevertheless,,  long  and  frequent 
habits  of  reading  proof-sheets  for  the  press,  a  quick  eye,  and  a 
steady  mind,  will  certainly  enable  a  person,  though  not  a  com- 
positor, to  detect  those  minor  deviations  from  correctness,  which 
the  inexperienced  and  the  careless  are  apt  to  overlook.  But 
while  these  habits  are  acquiring,  without  which  no  person  can 
be  safely  entrusted  to  read  a  sheet  for  press,  the  labors  of  the 
printer  are  liable  to  go  forth  into  the  world  in  a  manner  that 
will  reflect  discredit  on  the  employed,  and  give  offence  to  the 
employer.  This  observation  equally  refers  to  those  readers 
who  have  preyiously  been  compositors.  No  form,  therefore, 
ought  to  be  put  to  press,  until  it  has  been  read  and  revised  by 
an  experienced  reader. 

But  even  habit  itself  is  not  sufficient  to  form  a  competent 
reader,  unless  he  possess  those  literary  qualifications  which  are 
obviously  necessary  in  an  employment  of  this  nature.  No  one 
should  undertake  this  arduous  task,  until  he  has  made  himself 
a  complete  master  of,  at  least,  his  native  language. 

A  reader  ought  to  be  well  versed  in  all  the  peculiarities  of  the 
English  tongue — its  idioms,  its  true  genius,  and  singular  adap- 
tation to  that  variety  of  expression  in  which  we  embody  our 
thoughts,  and  portray  the  human  intellect.  Instances  will  fre- 
quently occur,  particularly  in  large  printing-offices,  where  a 
knowledge  of  this  nature  and  extent  will  be  almost  indispen- 
sable. Many,  even  of  our  first-rate  authors,  are  too  apt,  in 
the  warmth  of  discussion,  the  flights  of  speculation,  and  the 
laborious  exercise  of  the  thinking  powers,  to  pass  over,  unob- 
served, those  deviations  from  pure  diction  and  strict  grammatical 
accuracy,  which  they  have  imperceptibly  acquired  the  habit  of 
falling  into,  by  their  ordinary  conversation  with  mankind. 

Although  no  corrector  of  the  press  can  strictly  be  required  to 
do  otherwise  than  to  follow  his  copy,  that  is,  faithfully  to  adhere 
to  the  original,  with  all  its  defects,  yet  every  one  must  perceive, 
that  it  would  often  be  performing  a  friendly,  and  perhaps  a 
charitable  service,  to  point  out,  in  proper  time,  imperfections 
and  mistakes  which  have  escaped  the  observation  of  a  quick  or 
voluminous  writer.  This  remark  will,  however,  chiefly  apply 


190  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

to  inaccurate  orthography,  and  glaring  instances  of  erroneous 
syntax.  With  the  spirit,  the  opinions,  the  whims  of  an  author,, 
no  corrector  of  the  press  has  any  business  to  interfere.  Some 
writers,  afte»*  all  the  labors  of  the  printer,  and  the  skill  of  the 
reader,  are  doomed  to  make  their  appearance  before  the  world 
with  many  "imperfections  on  their  heads,"  are  condemned  to 
bear  the  contumely,  and  face  the  broad  eye  of  an  unrelenting 
critic. 

We  shall  conclude  this  part  of  our  subject  by  remarking,  that 
a  reader  ought  not  to  be  of  a  captious  or  pedantic  turn  of  mind: 
the  one  will  render  his  situation  and  employment  extremely 
unpleasant,  and  the  other  will  tempt  him  to  habits  destructive 
of  that  consistency  of  character  in  his  profession,  which  he 
ought  ever  scrupulously  to  maintain.  It  too  frequently  hap- 
pens, that  when  a  composiior  is  called  from  his  frame,  and  is 
appointed  to  fill  the  situation  of  a  reader,  and  is  admitted  into 
the  sanctum,*  much  less  the  sanctum  sanctorum, f  that  he  con- 
siders the  importance  of  his  station  has  placed  him  above  the 
rank  of  his  former  associates:  and  they,  on  the  other  hand, 
conceive  that  he  still  is,  (literally)  but  as  one  of  themselves; 
because  J)oth  hold  their  situations  by  the  same  tenure,  namely, 
a  supply  of  business  and  good  conduct:  consequently  it  behoves 
them  so  to  acquit  themselves,  that  they  may  retain  the  esteem 
of  their  fellow  workmen,  lest  they  should  unfortunately  be 
forced  into  the  ranks, J  when  they  would  be  continually  up- 
braided for  their  improper  conduct.  Should  a  compositor  have 
a  foul  proof,  either  from  inability  or  carelessness,  the  reader 
often  taunts  him  with  it:  the  compositor  very  aptly  replies. 
"  if  we  could  compose  without  faults,  there  would  be  no  neces- 
sity for  proofreaders!'7  We  have  known  instances  of  such 
readers,  when  at  case,  not  possessing  half  the  ability  of  the 
compositors  whom  they  wish  to  hold  up  to  derision;  and  who 
committed  equally  as  many  errors  when  composing!  Let  such 
men  reflect  on  this,  "  He  that  is  without  fault,  let  him  cast  the 
first  stone." 

*  Technical  term  for  the  reader's  room. 

t  Do.  overseer  or  employer's  room. 

t.  Technically  applied  to  compositors  in  their  frames. 


TYPOGRAPH1A.  191 

We  should  always  preserve  a  strict  uniformity  in  the  use  of 
capitals,  in  orthography,  and  punctuation.  Nothing  can  be 
more  vexatious  to  an  author,  than  to  see  the  words  honour, 
favour,  Sac.  spelt  with,  and  without  the  u.  This  is  a  discre- 
pancy which  correctors  ought  studiously  to  avoid.  The  above 
observations  equally  apply  to  the  capitaling  of  noun-substan- 
tives, &c.  in  one  place,  and  the  omission  of  them  in  another. 
However  the  opinions  of  authors  may  differ  in  these  respects, 
still  the  system  of  spelling,  &c.  must  not  be  varied  in  the  same 
work :  but  whatever  authority  is  selected  should  be  strictly  ad- 
hered to,  whether  it  be  Walker,  or  any  of  his  contemporaries. 

Such  being  the  qualifications  of  a  reader,  it  will  not  be  im- 
proper to  glance  at  the  application  of  those  attainments,  by 
exhibiting  the  process  which  proof-sheets  ought  to  undergo 
before  they  are  put  to  press. 

When  a  first  proof  is  pulled,  the  compositor  who  imposed 
the  sheet,  ought  to  collect  and  arrange  the  copy,  and  deliver 
both  to  the  reader,  who  then  calls  his  reading-boy,  to  read  the 
copy  aloud  to  him.  This  boy  should  be  able  to  read  any  copy 
put  into  his  hands  with  ease  and  distinctness ;  he  should  be  in- 
structed not  to  read  too  fast,  but  to  pay  the  same  attention  to 
the  subject,  as  though  he  were  reading  for  his  amusement  or 
edification.  The  eye  of  the  reader  should  not  follow,  but  rather 
precede  the  voice  of  the  boy;  accustomed  to  this  mode,  he  will 
be  able  to  anticipate  every  single  word  in  the  copy ;  and  should 
a  word  or  sentence  happen  to  have  been  omitted  in  the  proof, 
his  attention  will  the  more  sensibly  be  arrested  by  it,  when  he 
hears  it  pronounced  by  his  reading-boy.  He  ought  to  be  careful 
lest  his  eyes  advance  too  far  before  the  words  of  the  boy ;  be- 
cause in  his  attention  to  the  author's  meaning,  he  will  be  apt  to 
read  words  in  the  proof  which  do  not  actually  appear  there, 
and  the  accuracy  of  the  reading-boy  will  but  tend  to  confirm 
him  in  the  mistake. 

The  proof  being  read  with  the  reading-boy,  the  signatures, 
head-lines,  titles,  and  folios  of  each  page  should  be  most  care- 
fully examined;  and  the  number  (if  more  than  one)  of  the 
volume,  signature,  and  prima  of  the  ensuing  sheet,  accurately 
marked  on  the  margin  of  the  copy,  and  a  bracket  made  oetween 
17 


192 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


the  last  word  of  that  and  the  first  of  the  next  sheet,  in  order 
that  the  compositor,,  should  he  not  have  composed  beyond 
the  sheet,  may  know  where  to  begin,  without  having  the  trouble 
of  referring,  either  to  the  proof  or  the  form,  and  the  reader  will 
be  certain  that  the  commencement  is  right  when  he  gets  the 
succeeding  sheets — this  prevents  unnecessary  trouble  both  to 
the  reader  and  compositor. 

Before  the  proof  is  sent  to  the  compositor  to  be  corrected  in 
the  metal,  an  entry  should  be  made  in  a  book,  according  to  the 
following  plan : 


Date  of 
reading. 

Signa- 
tures. 

Names  of  Works. 

Sent  out. 

Returned 

Read  for 
press. 

1858. 

1858. 

1858. 

1858. 

May  2 
4 

11 

82 

Decorative  Printing,    .  .  . 
Physiognomical  Portraits, 

May  2 
4 

May  4 
5 

May  5 

6 

6 

20 

7 

8 

g 

7 

2 

Musical  Library,    

8 

9 

9 

This  account  being  attended  to  at  the  different  stages  of  each 
proof-sheet,  will  enable  the  reader  to  furnish  the  employer  or 
overseer  with  an  exact  account  of  the  state  of  each  work,  with- 
out trouble  or  inconvenience. 

After  the  compositors  have  corrected  the  errors  in  the  form, 
a  clean  proof  is  pulled,  which  with  the  first  proof,  is  again 
handed  to  the  reader,  or  overseer;  whose  duty  it  is  to  collate 
the  corrected  sheet  with  the  one  before  read,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain if  the  corrections  have  been  properly  made,  and  that  others 
have  not  been  created  in  the  process;  and  in  the  case  of  a  re- 
print, or  where  the  author  is  not  to  examine  the  proof,  he  then 
proceeds  to  read  it  very  carefully  for  press. 

There  are  many  compositors  whose  proofs  are  so  foul,  that  it 
is  almost  an  impossibility  for  them  to  correct  all  the  marks  at 
one  time,  consequently  it  is  indispensable  to  have  a  second 
proof  corrected  before  it  can  be  sent  out;  and  it  not  unfre- 
quently  happens  that  compositors,  in  the  course  of  correcting, 
either  transpose  a  letter  or  word,  or  else  alter  a  letter  in  a  word 
that  is  not  marked,  thereby  not  only  leaving  one  error  uncor- 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  193 

reeled,  out  also  making  another:  likewise,  when  the  line  is 
raised  to  change  the  spaces,  it  often  happens  that  some  of  tnem 
get  transposed.  Consequently  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  re- 
vising a  proof,  that  the  reader  should  not  only  look  at  the  word 
marked,  but  he  ought  also  to  glance  his  eyes  across  every  line 
in  which  an  alteration  had  been  made. 

In  those  offices  where  more  than  one  reader  is  employed,  it 
is  advisable  that  a  proof-sheet  should  be  read  over  by  at  least 
two  of  them;  because  the  eye,  in  traversing  the  same  ground, 
is  very  liable  to  be  drawn  into  mistake  and  oversight.  The 
interest  having  abated  which  was  excited  by  the  first  reading,  a 
certain  degree  of  listlessness  imperceptibly  steals  upon  the 
mind,  which  greatly  endangers  the  correctness  of  a  proof. 
Should  outs  or  doubles  occur  in  a  proof,  it  ought  to  be  again 
read  by  copy,  to  prevent  any  improper  connection  in  the  over- 
running, either  by  the  insertion  or  removal  of  them. 

Although  we  recommend  the  propriety  of  proofs  being  ex- 
amined by  more  than  one  reader,  yet  we  beg  to  be  understood 
as  not  admitting  each  reader  to  the  privilege  of  altering  the 
punctuation;  this  duty  should  be  exclusively  confined  to  one 
individual,  as  no  two  men  point  alike,  nor  will  a  subject  always 
appear  to  a  person  in  the  same  light  upon  a  second  or  third 
reading;  consequently  where  a  compositor  is  liable,  in  this  par- 
ticular, to  the  whim  or  caprice  of  several  readers,  it  is  neither 
more  nor  less  than  the  taking  of  so  much  money  out  of  his 
pocket,  because  his  valuable  time  is  unnecessarily  fVittered 
away :  nor  is  this  the  only  evil,  the  employer  not  only  has  the 
work  retarded,  but  also  his  types  injured,  as  well  as  the  liability 
of  creating  fresh  errors,  &.c. 

Slower  concludes  with  these  observations: — 

"  It  may  not  be  improper,  in  this  place,  just  to  take  notice  of 
the  great  danger  to  the  correctness  of  a  work  which  arises  from 
the  practice,  too  common  with  some  authors,  of  keeping  their 
proof-sheets  too  long  in  their  hands,  before  they  are  returned  to 
the  printer.  As  the  pages  in  the  metal  get  dry,  the  adhesion  ot 
the  types  to  each  other  is  weakened,  and  the  swell  or  extension 
of  the  quoins  and  furniture,  which  the  moisture  had  occasioned, 
is  removed ;  so  that  there  is  great  danger  of  letters  falling  out, 


194  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

when  a  form  is  long  kept  from  the  press.  Nor  is  the  danger 
which  is  hereby  occasioned  to  correctness  the  only  inconveni- 
ence ;  the  impatience  of  authors  to  see  their  works  in  a  fit  state 
for  publication  is  almost  proverbial.  The  pleasure  arising  from 
beholding,  as  it  were,  the  'form  and  texture'  of  one's  thoughts, 
is  a  sensation  much  easier  felt  than  described.  That  authors, 
therefore,  may  partake  of  this  pleasure  in  a  speedy  and  regular 
succession,  they  should  make  a  point  of  forwarding  their  proof- 
sheets  to  the  printer  as  quick  as  possible,  not  only  that  they 
may  the  sooner  be  got  ready  for  press,  but  that  the  work  may 
proceed  in  a  regular  manner,  without  being  interrupted  by  the 
forwarding  of  other  works  in  lieu  of  that,  the  proof-sheets  of 
which  are  detained  beyond  the  proper  time  in  the  hands  of  the 
author. 

" Authors  are  very  apt  to  make  alterations,  and  to  correct 
and  amend  the  style  or  arguments  of  their  works,  when  they 
first  see  them  in  print.  This  is  certainly  the  worst  time  for 
this  labor,  as  it  is  necessarily  attended  with  an  expense  which 
in  large  works  will  imperceptibly  swell  to  a  serious  sum; 
when,  however,  this  method  of  alteration  is  adopted  by  an 
author,  the  reader  must  always  be  careful  to  read  the  whole 
sheet  over  once  more  with  very  great  attention,  before  it  is 
finally  put  to  press. 

"  A  proof-sheet  having  duly  undergone  this  routine  of  pur- 
gation, may  be  supposed  to  be  as  free  from  errata  as  the  nature 
of  the  thing  will  admit,  and  the  word  e  Press'  may  be  written 
at  the  top  of  the  first  page  of  it.  This  is  an  important  word  to 
every  reader:  if  he  have  suffered  his  attention  to  be  drawn 
aside  from  the  nature  of  his  proper  business,  and  errors  should 
be  discovered  when  it  is  too  late  to  have  them  corrected,  this 
word  ( Press'  is  as  the  signature  of  the  death-warrant  of  his 
reputation.  A  reader,  therefore,  should  be  a  man  of  one  busi- 
ness— always  upon  the  alert — all  eye — all  attention.  Possessing 
a  becoming  reliance  on  his  own  powers,  he  should  never  be  too 
confident  of  success.  Imperfection  clings  to  him  on  every 
side! — Errors  and  mistakes  assail  him  from  every  quarter !  His 
business  is  of  a  nature  that  may  render  him  obnoxious  to  blame, 
but  can  hardly  be  said  to  bring  him  in  any  very  large  stock  of 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  195 

praise.  If  errors  escape  him  he  is  justly  to  be  censured — for 
perfection  is  his  duty  !  If  his  labors  are  wholly  free  from  mis- 
take— which  is,  alas !  a  very  rare  case — he  has  done  no  more 
than  he  ought,  and  consequently  can  merit  only  a  comparative 
degree  of  commendation,  in  that  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be 
more  successful  in  his  labors  after  perfection,  than  some  of  his 
brethren  in  the  same  employment." 

The  form  being  finally  laid  on  the  press,  and  a  Revise  pulled 
by  the  pressman,  he  sends  it  to  the  overseer,  who  carefully 
casts  his  eyes  along  the  sides  and  heads  of  the  respective  pages, 
to  observe  whether  any  letter  should  have  fallen  out,  any  crook- 
edness have  been  occasioned  in  the  locking  up  of  the  form,  any 
battered  letters,  or  any  bite  from  the  frisket.  Should  the  revise 
prove  faultless,  he  returns  it  to  the  pressman  with  the  word 
Revise  written  on  the  margin ;  if  otherwise,  to  the  compositor 
to  whom  the  form  belongs,  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  it  immedi- 
ately corrected. 

MATHEMATICAL,  ALGEBRAICAL,  AND  GEOME- 
TRICAL CHARACTERS. 

+  plus,  or  more,  is  the  sign  of  real  existence  of  the  quantity 
it  stands  before,  and  is  called  an  affirmative  or  positive  sign.  It 
is  also  the  mark  of  addition:  thus,  a  +  b,  or  6  +  9,  implies 
that  a  is  to  be  added  to  b,  or  6  added  to  9. 

—  minus,  or  less,  before  a  single  quantity,  is  the  sign  of 
negation,  or  negative  existence,  showing  the  quantity  to  which 
it  is  prefixed  to  be  less  than  nothing.  But  between  quantities 
it  is  the  sign  of  subtraction :  thus,  a — b,  or  8 — 4,  implies  b  sub- 
tracted from  a,  or  8  after  4  has  been  subtracted. 

=  equal.  The  sign  of  equality,  though  Des  Cartes  and  some 
others  use  this  mark  XD  ;  thus  a  =  b,  signifies  that  a  is  equal 
to  b.  Wolfius  and  some  others  use  the  mark  =  for  the  identity 
of  ratios. 

X  into  or  with.    The  sign   of  multiplication,  showing  that 

the  quantities  on  each  side  the  same  are  to  be  multiplied  by  one 

another,  as  a  X  b  is  to  be  read,  a  multiplied  into  b;  4X8,  the 

product  of  4  multiplied  into  8.     Wolfius  and  others  make  the 

17* 


196  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

sign  of  multiplication  a  dot  between  the  two  factors ;  thus,  7 . 4, 
signifies  the  product  of  7  and  4.  In  algebra  the  sign  is  com- 
monly omitted,  and  the  two  quantities  put  together;  thus,  b  d 
expresses  the  product  of  b  and  d.  When  one  or  both  of  the 
factors  are  compounded  of  several  letters,  they  are  distinguished 
by  a  line  drawn  over  them ;  thus,  the  factum  of  a  4-  b  —  c  into 
d,  is  wrote  d  X  a  -{-  b  —  c.  Leibnitz,  Wolfius,  and  others,  dis- 
tinguished the  compound  factors,  by  including  them  in  a  paren- 
thesis; thus,  (a+ft — c)  d. 

-T-  by.  The  sign  of  division;  thus  a-^-b  denotes  the  quantity 
a  to  be  divided  by  b.  Wolfius  makes  the  sign  of  division  two 
dots;  12 : 4  denotes  the  quotient  of  12  divided  by  4=3.  If  either 
the  divisor,  or  dividend,  or  both,  be  composed  of  several  letters, 
for  example,  a..fc-i-c,  instead  of  writing  the  quotient  like  a 

fraction. 

©-  involution.    The  character  of  involution 
vt  evolution.    The  character  of  evolution,  or  the  extracting 
of  roots. 

7  or  cr  are  signs  of  majority;  thus,  a  ?  b,  expresses  that  a 
is  greater  than  b. 

;/  or  ~3  are  signs  of  minority;  when  we  would  denote  that 
a  is  less  than  b. 

Ul  is  the  character  of  similitude  used  by  Wolfius,  Leibnitz, 
and  others.  It  is  used  in  other  authors  for  the  difference  be- 
tween two  quantities,  while  it  is  unknown  which  is  the  greater 
of  the  two. 

:iso  is.  The  mark  of  geometrical  proportion  disjunct,  and  is 
usually  placed  between  two  pair  of  equal  ratios,  as  3  :  6 II 4  :  8, 
shews  that  3  is  to  6  as  4  is  to  8. 

:  or  .  • .  is  an  arithmetical  equal  proportion  ;  as,  7 .  3  :  13  .  9 : 
i.  e.  7  is  more  than  3,  as  13  is  more  than  9. 

D  Quadrat,  or  regular  quadrangle,  as  follows :  D  AB  =  D 
BC;  i.  e.  the  quadrangle  upon  the  line  AB  is  equal  to  the  quad- 
rangle upon  the  line  BC. 

A  Triangle;  as,  A  ABC=  A  ADC. 

/  an  Angle;  as  /  ABC  =  /  ADC. 

J_  Perpendicular;  as,  AB  J_  BC. 

CH  Rectangled  Parallelogram,  or  the  product  of  two  lines. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  197 

||  The  character  of  parallelism. 

V  equiangular,  or  similar. 

i  equilateral. 

C_  right  angle. 

o  denotes  a  degree;  thus  45°  implies  45  degrees. 

7  a  minute;  thus,  50',  is  50  minutes:  ", '", "" ,  denotes 
seconds,  thirds,  and  fourths :  and  the  same  characters  are  used 
where  the  progressions  are  by  tens,  as  it  is  here  by  sixties. 

-H-  the  mark  of  geometrical  proportion  continued,  implies  the 
ratio  to  be  still  carried  on  without  interruption,  as  2,  4,  8,  16, 
32,  64  -K-  are  in  the  same  uninterrupted  proportion. 

-/  irrationality.  The  character  of  a  surd  root,  and  shows, 
according  to  the  index  of  the  power  that  is  set  over  it,  or  after 
it,  that  the  square,  cube,  or  other  root,  is  extracted,  or  to  be  ex- 
tracted; thus,  -/  16,  or  -y/ 2  16,  or  </  (2)  16,  is  the  square  root 
of  16.  ty  25,  the  cube  root  of  25,  &c. 

— :  the  differences,  or  excess. 

Q,  or  q,  a  square. 

C  or  c,  a  cube. 

Q,  Q,,  The  ratio  of  a  square  number  to  a  square  number. 

These  and  several  other  signs  and  symbols,  we  meet  with  in 
mathematical  and  algebraical  works;  though  authors  do  not 
confine  themselves  to  them,  but  express  their  knowledge  in 
different  ways,  yet  so  as  to  be  understood  by  those  skilled  in 
the  science.  In  algebraical  works,  therefore,  in  particular,  gen- 
tlemen should  be  very  exact  in  their  copy,  and  compositors  as 
careful  in  following  it,  that  no  alterations  may  ensue  after  it  is 
composed ;  since  changing  and  altering  work  of  this  nature  is 
more  troublesome  to  a  compositor  than  can  be  imagined  by  one 
that  has  not  a  tolerable  knowledge  of  printing.  Hence  it  is  that 
very  few  compositors  are  fond  of  algebra,  and  rather  choose  to 
be  employed  upon  plain  work,  though  less  profitable  to  them 
than  the  former;  because  it  is  disagreeable,  and  injures  the 
habit  of  an  expeditious  compositor  besides.  In  the  mean  time 
we  venture  to  say,  that  the  composing  of  algebra  might  be 
made  more  agreeable  were  proper  cases  contrived  for  the  letter 
and  sorts  belonging  to  such  work,  where  it  is  likely  to  make  a 
return  towards  its  extraordinary  charges. 


198 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


CELESTIAL  AND  ASTRONOMICAL  SIGNS. 

The  twelve  Signs  of  the  Zodiac. 


T  Aries. 

SL  Leo, 

/   Sagittarius, 

8  Taurus, 

H£  Virgo, 

V3  Capricorn, 

H  Gemini, 

—  Libra, 

£?  Aquarius, 

°Z  Cancer, 

TT1,  Scorpio, 

^  Pisces. 

The  Nine  Planets. 

^>   Saturnus, 

£  Mercurius, 

$  Juno, 

U  Jupiter, 

JJT  J  Georgium 

fi  Vesta, 

$  Mars, 

1      Sidus, 

t$  Sun, 

0  Earth, 

?   Ceres, 

O  Moon. 

9  Venus, 

$   Pallas, 

Seven  of  the  Planets  sometimes  imply  the  seven  days  of  the  week. 


Dies  Mercurii — Wednesday, 
Dies  Jovis — Thursday, 
Dies  Veneris — Friday, 


Dies  Soils — Sunday, 
Dies  Lunce — Monday, 
Dies  Martis — Tuesday, 

Dies  Saturni — Saturday. 

Q  The  dragon's  Head,  or  ascending  node,  and 
£3  The  Dragon's  Tail,  or  descending  node,  are  the  two  points 
in  which  the  eclipses  happen. 

The  Aspects. 

d  Conjunction  happens  when  two  planets  stand  under  each 
other  in  the  same  sign  and  degree. 

<9  Qppositio;  happens  when  two  planets  stand  diametrically 
opposite  each  other. 

A  Trigonus;  happens  when  one  planet  stands  from  another 
four  signs,  or  120  degrees;  which  make  one-third  part  of  the 
ecliptic. 

G  Q,uadril;  happens  when  two  planets  stand  three  signs 
from  each  other,  which  make  90  degrees,  or  the 'fourth  part  of 
the  ecliptic. 

^  Sextil;  is  the  sixth  part  of  the  ecliptic,  which  is  two  signs, 
and  make  60  degrees. 

4fy  New  Moon.  ^  Full  Moon. 

Q  First  quarter.  (f  Last  quarter. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  199 

Many  are  the  signs  and  symbols  which  astronomers  have 
invented  to  impose  upon  the  credulity  of  the  vulgar,  who  are 
the  cnief  supporters  of  almanacs;  and  especially  of  such  as 
abound  in  predictions  of  any  kind:  among  which  we  reckon 
those  signs  which  give  notice,  on  what  day  it  is  proper  to  let 
blood;  to  bathe  and  to  cup;  to  sow  and  to  plant;  to  take 
physic;  to  have  one's  hair  cut;  to  cut  one's  nails;  to  wean 
children;  and  many  other  alike  nonsensical  observations,  to 
which  the  lower  class  of  people  are  particularly  bigoted;  be- 
sides giving  credit  to  the  marks  that  serve  to  indicate  hail, 
thunder,  lightning,  or  any  occult  phaenomena. 


PHYSICAL  SIGNS  AND  ABBREVIATIONS. 

R  stands  for  Recipe,  or  Take, 
a,  aa,  of  each  a  like  quantity. 
}fe  a  pound. 
3  an  ounce. 
3  a  drachm. 
9  a  scruple. 

j  stands  for  1 ;  ij  for  2,  and  so  on. 
fS  signifies  semi,  or  half, 
gr.  denotes  a  grain. 
One  pound  makes  12  ounces. 
One  ounce  contains  8  drachms. 
One  drachm  is  equal  to  3  scruples. 
One  scruple  consists  of  20  grains. 
One  grain  has  the  weight  of  a  barley-corn. 
P.  stands  for  particula,  a  little  part,  and  means  so  much  aa 
can  be  taken  between  the  ends  of  two  fingers. 
P.  a?q.  stands  for  paries  cequales,  or  equal  parts, 
q.  s.  quantum  sufficit,  or  as  much  as  is  sufficient. 
q.  p.  quantum  placit,  or  as  much  as  you  please, 
s.  a.  secundem  artem,  or  according  to  art. 


200  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

OF  GREEK  AND  HEBREW. 

GREEK. 

GREEK  is  more  frequently  used  in  printing  than  the  other 
peculiar  characters ;  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  for  every  respect- 
able printing-office  to  be  furnished  with  that  type,  though  not  to 
any  great  amount  of  weight,  as  a  quantity  sufficient  to  serve 
for  quotations,  notes,  mottos,  &.c.  may  be  contained  in  a  pair  of 
cases,  by  dividing  some  of  the  boxes  of  the  upper  case  for  the 
accents,  and  omitting  useless  letters,  ligatures,  and  abbreviations. 
This  was  impracticable  when  ligatures  and  abbreviations  were 
in  use,  for  then  seven  hundred  and  fifty  boxes  were  required  for 
the  different  sorts  in  a  fount  of  Greek.  The  inducement  to  the 
first  founders  of  the  art  to  perplex  themselves  with  cutting  and 
casting  so  many  different  abbreviations  and  contractions  was 
probably  a  desire  to  imitate  Greek  writing,  and  to  produce  in 
type  the  flourishes  of  the  pen;  but  what  could  prompt  them  to 
confound  themselves  with  an  infinite  number  of  ligatures,  can- 
not so  well  be  accounted  for.  Greek  is,  however,  now  cast 
almost  every  where  without  either  ligatures  or  abbreviations, 
except  where  founders  have  express  orders  for  them.  Some 
few,  however,  not  only  grace  Greek  letter,  but  are  also  profita- 
ble to  a  compositor  who  knows  how  to  use  them  properly. 

Having  intimated  that  the  useful  sorts  of  a  fount  of  Greek 
letter  may  be  lodged  in  a  pair  of  cases  that  contain  no  more 
than  two  hundred  and  seven  boxes,  a  scheme  will  be  presented 
in  the  following  pages  for  that  purpose,  which  will  afford  a  fair 
presumption  that  a  great  many  of  the  sorts  above  referred  to 
must  be  needless,  where  their  number  occupies  seven  hundred 
and  fifty  boxes.  It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  almost 
three  hundred  of  these  sorts  have  no  other  difference  than  that 
of  being  kerned  on  their  hind  side;  for  there  has  been  Greek 
with  capitals  kerned  on  both  sides. 

We  now  present  to  the  reader,  the  Greek  alphabet  with  the 
name  of  each  letter  in  English  characters,  its  sound,  and  nume- 
rical value. 


TYPOGRAPHTA. 


201 


THE  GREEK  ALPHABET. 


Characters. 

Names  in  English 
characters. 

Sounds. 

Numerical 
value. 

A  a     .     . 

Alpha  . 

a 

1 

BJ3  £       . 

Beta      . 

b 

2 

r  y  f  .    . 

Gamma 

0* 

3 

AS      .     . 

Delta    . 

d 

4 

Us      .     . 

Epsilon 

e  short 

5 

z  £C    • 

Zeta      . 

z 

7 

H,  .   . 

Eta 

e  long 

8 

®$0 

Theta   . 

th 

9 

It 

Iota 

i 

10 

K  x     .     . 

Kappa  . 

kc 

20 

AX... 

Lambda 

1 

30 

M^t    .     . 

Mu  .     . 

m 

40 

N  v      .     . 

Nu  .     . 

n 

50 

3%    .    • 

Xi    .     . 

X 

60 

O  o      .     . 

Omicron 

o  short 

70 

n  *  to-  . 

Pi     .     . 

P 

80 

p  ep  •   • 

Rho      . 

r 

100 

2  <*  j 

Sigma  ,      *•  . 

s 

200 

TI  *  .  . 

Tau      . 

t 

300 

TV      .     . 

Upsilon 

u 

400 

**  .  . 

Phi  .    . 

ph 

500 

x*  .    . 

Chi-     . 

ch 

600 

¥*  .   . 

Psi  .     . 

ps 

700 

0    Ui         .           . 

Omega 

o  long 

800 

202                           TYPOGRAPHIA. 

<3 

-.0           -:<* 

*- 

ea 

<3 

•?o 

ta 

rO 

•P 

'3 

:o 

MH 

:o 

& 

"3 

»-0 

i-m 

»->» 

»^» 

•-3 

••3 

>su 

Ml 

isa 

'3 

'0 

^ 

r'O 

m 

?3 

;o 

M 

^ 

-P 

«3 

io 

C«, 

£o 

ca 

C3 

-0 

t« 

Co 

tp 

"3 

r,0 

"IW 

••^ 

-» 

m 

w 

"3 

-3 

-«, 

-0 

-?» 

< 
o 

'3 

'0 

r« 

/  0 

'S> 

GREEK  UPPER 

-3 

'0 

2 

^ 

'P 



-3 

^0 

vW 

v  0 

-» 

W 

Ut 

^ 

a- 

^a 

•:•» 

<« 

-ao 

IN 

fc 

H 

S^: 

••a 

:» 

t~3 

»» 

W 

§ 

H 

a- 

•-a 

f» 

--a 

'» 

<1 

<! 

W 

-a 

;» 

ca 

c» 

EH 

|D 

& 

G 

-a 

tso 

-a 

"30 

pq 

M 

K 

$* 

-a 

"30 

'a 

l» 

^ 

© 

O 

X 

-a 

'» 

ve 

v» 

TYPOGRAPHIA. 

203 

VI 

aa 

» 

w«. 

1 
I 

4 

* 

ti 

H^U 

GREEK  LOWER  CASE. 

<J 

• 

4 

.^ 

• 

& 

A 

Ck. 

- 

• 

» 

- 

- 

' 

Vo 

* 

* 

- 

0 

a 

* 

* 

«U 

- 

5  em  spaces. 

thick  and 
middling  Spaces. 

«, 

«. 

- 

^ 

C- 

>* 

1* 

£ 

»• 

- 

S| 

.„ 

- 

* 

«. 

0 

x 

1 

«• 

e- 

^ 

^ 

f 

18 


204  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

Such  compositors  and  readers  as  are  not  Greek  scholars,  and 
even  those  who  are,  but  have  not  paid  attention  to  accents,  will 
do  well  to  bear  in  mind  the  proper  situations  of  the  spirits  and 
accents;  as  many  of  the  faults  which  so  frequently  offend  the 
scholar's  eye,  might  thereby  be  avoided.  The  following  rules 
may  be  easily  borne  in  mind : — No  accent  can  be  placed  over 
any  other  than  one  of  the  three  last  syllables  of  a  word.  No 
vowel  can  have  a  spirit,  or  breathing,  except  at  the  beginning 
of  a  word.  The  grave  accent  never  occurs  but  on  the  last 
syllable;  and  this  being  the  case,  the  asper  grave  [tv]  and  lenis 
grave  [*]  can  be  wanted  only  for  a  few  monosyllables,  and  less 
than  half  the  quantity  usually  cast  would  be  enough  in  a  fount. 
Almost  every  word  has  an  accent,  but  very  seldom  has  more 
than  one ;  and  when  this  happens,  it  is  an  acute  thrown  back 
upon  the  last  syllable  from  one  of  those  words  called  enclitics, 
which,  in  that  case,  has  none,  unless  it  be  followed  by  another 
enclitic.  In  no  other  case  than  this  can  a  last  syllable  have 
an  acute  accent,  except  before  a  full  point,  colon,  or  note  of 
interrogation,  when  the  grave  accent  of  the  last  syllable  is 
changed  to  an  acute;  a  circumstance  which  has  often  led 
printers  who  were  ignorant  of  the  reasons  for  accenting  the 
same  word  differently  in  different  situations,  to  think  that  there 
was  an  error  in  their  copy,  and  thus  to  make  one  in  their  proof. 
Most  errors,  however,  proceed  from  those  who  do  not  think  at 
all  about  the  matter. 


In  the  column  No.  1  of  the  following  table,  the  force  of  the 
Hebrew  letters,  when  read  without  points,  is  expressed;  and 
the  next  column,  No.  2,  gives  you  their  force  when  the 
language  is  complicated  with  the  Masoretic  points  or  Vowels, 
which  are  certainly  of  later  date  than  the  present  Hebrew 
letters.  We  also  give  their  names  in  English  characters,  and 
their  numerical  value. 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


205 


THE  HEBREW  ALPHABET. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

Numer. 
Value. 

Aleph  X 
Beth  ^      • 

Sounded  a  in 
war  (vowel.) 

A  gentle  aspi- 
rate. 
Bh 

1 

2 

Gimel  J 

g  hard 

Gh 

3 

Daleth  -7  . 

Dh 

4 

He  H  . 
Vau  1        . 

a  in  hate  (vow.) 
u  vowel,  or  be- 

A rougn  aspi- 
rate. 

5 
6 

Zain  f  . 

fore  a  vowel,  w 

Ds 

7 

Cheth  n  - 

H/i 

8 

Teth  £3 

Th 

9 

Jod  » 
Caph  3  *T 

Like  ee  in  Eng- 
lish, (vowel.) 
k  or  c  hard 

j  consonant,  or 
the  softer  y 

10 

20 

Lamed   ^ 

*ii 

30 

Mem  £  Q 

D* 

40 

Nun  J  7 

— 

50 

Samech   Q 

^ 

Soft  s 

60 

Ain  J^ 
Phe   £fi 

f 

o  long,  (vowel) 

hg,  or  hgh,  the 
roughest  as- 

70 

80 

Tzaddi  \f  t*  j 

j  soft. 

pirate. 

90 

Koph  p  |. 

5,  or  <yw 

100 

Resch     •)     . 

200 

Shin  JJJ  or  Sin 

s  hard 

300 

Thau  J-|    . 

400 

206                         TYPOGRAPHIA. 

•% 

.r 

•Q 

Q 

•ci 

T" 

n 

.n 

n: 

•r 

*Q 

iA 

*r 

n: 

.n 

.n 

.  •*» 

^ 

& 

.r 

r 

•** 

•  *r- 

•n 

T1 

.^1 

C 

** 

HEBREW  UPPER  CASE. 

•+% 

•  »— 

n 

•«-i 

•n- 

C 

n 

.r 

•n 

•^ 

•Q 

/^» 

,^— 

X 

r 

•D 

n 

.Cl 

T" 

*T~ 

X 

r 

^i 

^ 

z 

a 

— 

*-- 

0 

^ 

i: 

r^ 

n~ 

a 

Q 

:^ 

n 

- 

- 

V 

~ 

:* 

.^\ 

E 

H 

. 

< 

n 

rL. 

c 

P 

> 

n 

^r^ 

j^ 

T 

2 

^ 

- 

Q 

:& 

0 

- 

& 

- 

. 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


207 


HEBREW  LOWER  CASE. 


n 


Q 


n 


o 


r; 


•sjuiod  ; 


:  spsnb  pac  saoiedg 


18* 


COMMON  HEBREW  CASE. 

TYPOGRAPHIA. 

C 

a 

•rpupgno  ui 

1 
i 

vjBjpunb  n 

0 

*~ 

M 

..  ;    . 

S 

*-* 

d 

a 

H 

c 

0 

C 

^ 

t- 

- 

^i 

.^ 

IT 

n 

Q 

1    if 

«              ^  4., 
.b              If 

JS       51 

— 

r 

^T- 

r 

n 

n 

IX 

r- 

% 

• 

- 

^\ 

TYPOGRAPHIA.  209 

Letters  that  have  a  likeness  to  others. 
Beth  Caph 

Daleth  Caph  Resch 

Vau  Zain  Jod  Nun 

i  r  »  I 

Mem  Samech 

D  D 

Gimel  Nun 

He  Cheth  Thau 

n  n  n 

Teth  Mem 

£0  0 

Ain  Tzaddi 

y  v 

The  following  five  letters  are  cast  broad,  and  are  used  at  the 
end  of  words,  viz. 

Aleph        He        Lamed        Mem      Thau 

Nt      n      t-7       D     n 

but  are  not  counted  among  the  final  letters,  being  contrived  for 
justifying,  because  Hebrew  is  not  divided. 

The  Hebrew  has  no  capitals,  and  therefore  letters  of  the  same 
shape,  but  of  a  larger  body,  are  used  at  the  beginning  of  chap- 
ters, and  other  parts  of  Hebrew  works. 

The  Hebrew  reads  from  the  right  to  the  left,  which  is  the 
case  with  all  other  Oriental  languages,  except  the  Ethiopic  and 
Armenian.  In  composing  Hebrew,  therefore,  the  Jews  begin 
at  the  end  of  the  composing  stick,  and  justify  the  vowels  and 
accents  over  and  under  the  letters  after  the  line  of  matter  is 
adjusted. 


MUSIC, 

Cast  at  the  foundry  ofL.  Johnson  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

IN  no  department  of  letter  founding  has  the  progress  of  improve- 
ment been  more  decided  and  satisfactory  than  in  the  production  of 
music  type.  Delicacy  and  distinctness,  grace  and  symmetry  have 
been  united  in  so  remarkable  a  manner,  that  the  finest  work  of 
the  music  stamper  can  scarcely  compare  with  the  ingenious  com- 
binations of  the  type  founder  and  printer.  The  music  of  which 
specimens  are  here  given  is  cast  on  the  centre  of  the  body,  and 
any  intelligent  workman  may  learn  to  compose  it  with  facility. 
A  plan  of  the  cases  accompanies  every  fount. 

DIAMOND. 


AGATE,  No.  2. 


fe^j^ 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  DUTY  OP  AN  OVERSEER. 

THOSE  persons  whose  ability  or  ambition  induces  them  to 
a-spire  to  the  attainment  of  this  important  situation,  should  be 
endowed  with  something  more  than  an  ordinary  capacity, 
together  with  an  even  and  forgiving  temper ;  and  whose  rules 
of  conduct  should  be  founded  upon  the  strict  laws  of  Equity 
and  Justice;  not  deviating  in  the  least  from  the  above  standard 
in  order  to  favor  either  the  employer  or  the  employed;  other- 
wise he  may  stand  a  fair  chance  of  losing  the  good-will  and 
esteem  of  one,  or  perhaps  both  of  the  above  named  parties ;  he 
should  always  bear  in  mind,  in  all  his  actions,  that  a  reciprocity 
of  interests  exists  between  them,  which  is  indispensably  neces- 
sary to  the  forwarding  an  excellent  execution  of  any  branch  of 
art,  and  that  it  falls  precisely  within  his  province  to  maintain 
this  union  of  interests  to  the  utmost  of  his  ability. 

In  houses  where  several  presses  are  employed,  an  Overseer 
is  indispensably  necessary;  it  is  true  a  small  concern  maybe 
conducted  by  an  Employer,  if  he  were  not  liable  to  frequent 
interruptions  while  in  business,  together  with  the  necessary 
absence  from  home:  on  which  occasions  a  trustworthy  Agent 
is  of  course  required,  not  only  to  answer  all  applications,  but 
also  to  attend  to  every  department  of  the  machine;  otherwise 
(compositors  and  pressmen  being  at  all  times  dependent  on 
each  other)  one  or  both  may  probably  stand  idle,  from  the 
absence  or  neglect  of  duty  in  either  party,  or  from  the  em- 
ployer's engagements  abroad.  Having  presumed  thus  much, 
we  shall  now  venture  to  offer  a  few  hints  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  are  now,  or  who  may  hereafter  be  selected  to  fill  this 
highly  important  situation. 

It  has  been  observed,  that  an  Overseer  should  be  the  first  and 
last  in  attendance  at  the  office,  in  order  that  he  may  be  satisfied 
that  every  person  on  the  premises  does  his  duty ;  likewise  to 


212  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

observe  that  those  in  the  establishment  attend  at  their  regular 
time:  we  suggest,  that  the  task  of  an  early  attendance  in  the 
morning  would  be  more  properly  filled  by  the  second  in  au- 
thority; because  the  principal  manager  would  of  necessity  be 
frequently  required  to  attend  late  in  the  evening  to  depatch 
proofs,  &c. 

The  office  being  now  swept,  and  the  type  selected  from  the 
dust  by  the  errand  boy,  that  found  in  the  body  of  the  rooms 
should  be  given  to  the  Overseer,  or  his  deputy,  (if  any)  who 
ought  to  see  it  immediately  distributed,  and  then  walk  round 
the  house  in  order  that  he  may  discover  if  the  compositors  have 
followed  his  example,  by  disposing  of  the  portion  found  in  each 
respective  frame,  likewise  that  no  pi  be  left  either  on  the  frames, 
bulks,  or  gallies ;  should  there  be  any,  even  a  single  letter,  ne 
should  insist  upon  its  being  immediately  distributed.  Attention 
to  this  particular  is  of  vast  importance,  because  it  not  only 
keeps  the  office  clear  of  pi,  but  it  also  prevents  useful  and 
valuable  sorts  from  being  buried. 

He  should  likewise  be  possessed  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  state  of  every  work  in  progress,  and  as  a  more  effectual 
mode  of  expediting  them,  he  may  adopt  the  following  rules. 
1.  In  companionships,  no  man  should  be  suffered  to  hold  too 
large  a  taking  of  copy,  otherwise  he  would  keep  his  com- 
panions composing  at  random  much  longer  than  were  neces- 
sary, which  would  of  course  retard  the  imposition  of  the  sheet, 
and  also  require  a  much  greater  scope  of  letter  to  enable  them 
to  proceed  with  the  work;  from  which  cause,  it  is  not  at  all 
improbable,  but  that  the  pressman  will  have  to  remain  idle  in 
the  first  instance,  and  consequently  the  compositors  in  the 
second.  2.  The  moment  a  sheet  is  composed  and  made  up,  he 
should  order  it  to  be  imposed,  provided  there  be  room  on  the 
imposing-stone  for  that  purpose.  3.  The  same  expedition  should 
be  used  in  getting  the  proof  pulled  when  imposed.  4.  The 
Reader  should  receive  it  instantly,  send  it  up  leaf  by  leaf  to  be 
corrected;  which  the  Overseer  of  course  will  direct  to  be  for- 
warded immediately,  should  no  obstacle  occur  to  prevent  it.  5. 
This  duty  performed,  a  second  proof  should  be  taken,  which 
the  reader  should  forward  to  the  author,  (if  required,)  or  other- 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


213 


wise  read  it  carefully  through  for  press;  the  same  expedition 
should  be  used  in  getting  it  finally  corrected  for  working  off. 

A  close  attention  to  the  above  hints  will  enable  an  Overseer 
to  conduct  and  keep  in  regular  motion  a  concern  of  great  mag- 
nitude, not  only  with  satisfaction  to  himself,  but  also  with 
credit  to  his  employer,  for  punctuality  and  despatch  of  business. 

Sorts  not  in  general  use,  chases,  furniture,  leads,  &c.  should 
be  locked  up  under  the  care  of  the  Overseer  or  his  deputy,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  in  readiness  when  required;  he  would 
also  find  a  memorandum  book,  in  which  an  entry  of  suck  sorts 
should  be  made,  highly  beneficial. 

He  would  also  find  a  book,  which  we  shall  denominate  a 
Press  Book,  of  vast  importance,  in  which  he  should  regularly, 
every  evening,  make  an  entry  of  the  paper  that  the  warehouse- 
man is  to  give  out  to  wet,  for  the  various  works  in  progress. 
Upon  the  pressmen  enquiring  of  him  what  they  are  to  lay  on 
next,  he  informs  them,  and  in  this  book  fills  up  the  necessary 
columns,  agreeable  with  the  heads  of  the  annexed  table. 


When 
given  out 
to  wet. 

Names  of  Works. 

No. 

Signa- 
tures. 

Date 
when  laid 
on. 

Names  of 
pressmen. 

1858. 
May  2 
4 

5 

Decorative  Printing,    .  .  . 
Physiognomical  Portraits, 
Typographia,    

1000 
750 
1000 
3000 

11 

82 
20 
2 

1858. 
May  4 
5 
8 
9 

Speer. 
Flue. 
Smith. 
Butt. 

Musical  Library,       .... 

It  is  generally  the  business  of  the  Overseer  to  revise  the 
proofs  for  press,  in  doing  which  he  will  be  careful  not  only 
to  ascertain  whether  all  the  corrections  marked  in  the  proof  are 
made,  but  also  to  cast  his  eye  carefully  over  the  sides,  head, 
and  bottom  of  each  page,  as  it  frequently  happens  that  the  folios 
or  catch  words  drop  out  of  the  form  in  lifting  it  off  the  imposing 
stone;  also  in  leaded  matter,  letters  at  the  beginning  and  ends 
of  lines  frequently  fall  out  of  their  proper  place,  and  by  stand- 
ing crooked  have  a  slovenly  appearance.  Before  the  revise  is 
given  to  the  compositor,  the  names  of  the  pressmen  who  are 
intended  to  work  off  the  form,  should  be  entered  in  the  Press 


214 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


Book.  With  foul  compositors,  the  Overseer  should  invariably 
require  a  second  revise,  in  order  to  ascertain  if  all  the  correc- 
tions have  been  made  which  were  marked  in  the  first,  as  no 
sort  of  dependence  can  be  placed  on  them.  He  should,  (where 
there  is  not  a  person  engaged  expressly  for  the  purpose,  as  is 
the  case  in  houses  employing  ten  or  fourteen  presses)  go  regu- 
larly round,  about  every  quarter  of  an  hour,  to  the  different 
presses,  and  examine  their  work,  point  out  defects,  if  any,  and 
glance  again  over  the  heads,  sides,  and  bottoms  of  the  pages,  to 
see  if  any  thing  has  been  drawn  out  by  the  rollers,  which  fre- 
quently occurs  from  bad  justification  of  the  lines,  and  careless 
and  improper  locking  up  of  the  form.  An  active  and  consci- 
entious Overseer  will  not  be  content  with  merely  managing  the 
concerns  of  the  composing  room ;  he  will  also  see  that  the 
business  of  the  warehouse  is  attended  to  with  regularity  and 
accuracy;  and  that  the  warehouseman,  errand  boys,  and  ap- 
prentices do  their  duty.  , 

Having,  in  the  present  Chapter,  presented  the  Overseer  with 
the  plan  of  a  book,  called  the  Press  Book,  we  shall  introduce 
another  of  equal  importance,  (which  we  shall  call  a  Check 
Book,)  for  the  purpose  of  checking  the  bills  of  both  the  Com- 
positors and  Pressmen ;  this  book  enables  him,  at  a  single  glance, 
to  discover  any  overcharges  that  may  have  been  made. 
Plan  of  a  Book  for  Checking  Compositors9  and  Prcssmcii's  Bills. 


Adams'  Typographia,  18mo.  Double  Med.     No.  1000. 

Signature. 

Compositors 

Corrections. 

By  whom  worked  ac  Press. 

Observations. 

0 

C 

M! 

t: 

E 

Denison. 

Jones. 

Outer  Form. 

Inner  Form. 

. 

B 

6 

7 

9 

9 

r 

c»  i   2P 

J.  Speer. 

C.  Flue. 

C 

D 

12 

10 

4 

4 

G 

75 

C.  Flue. 

J.  Speer. 

E 

F 

G 

TYPOGRAPHIA. 


215 


After  he  has  entered  into  the  press  book  an  account  of  the 
paper  intended  to  be  wet,  he  sets  down  the  same  articles  with 
the  numbers  and  date  in  a  book  called  the  Wetting  Book :  from 
this  book  the  warehouseman  receives  his  instructions  for  giving 
out  the  paper.  This  book  also  informs  him  of  the  quantity  of 
wet  paper,  and  the  length  of  time  it  has  been  wetted;  this  is 
of  importance  when  authors  sometimes  detain  proofs  so  long, 
that  the  paper  allotted  for  those  sheets  will  mildew,  if  it  be  not 
hung  up  to  dry  in  a  seasonable  time. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  tables,  we  shall  now  lay  before 
our  readers  another,  equally  important  in  every  point  of  view, 
which  we  shall  designate  with  the  title  of  the  Job  Book. 

Plan  of  the  Job  Book. 


"d 

-> 

GO 

0) 

i 

ca 

m 

C3 

3 

e 

0 

o 

0) 

jS 
Q 

i 

0 

O 

3 

4 

a 

0 

O 

Pressm's.  N 

1 
O 

6 

Q 

Corrections. 

1 

c 

•c 

PH 

6 
fc 

For  whom  pi 

Size  and 
Description. 

> 

cc 

Q 

~o 

_0 

"o 

-IH 

CO 

5 

By  means  of  a  Job  Book,  an  Employer  or  Overseer  will  be 
enabled,  at  a  single  glance,  (without  referring  to  the  bills  of  the 
Compositors  and  Pressmen,)  to  discover  not  only  every  charge 
that  has  been  made  upon  a  Job,  but  also  for  whom,  the  num- 
ber printed,  and  the  size  and  description,  together  with  the  full 
charge. 

An  Overseer  should  be  in  possession  of  a  thorough  know- 
ledge of  every  branch  of  his  profession.  It  not  unfrequently 
happens  either  from  a  press  of  business,  or  the  absence  of  the 
reader,  that  he  may  be  necessitated  to  read  for  press ;  he  should 
19 


216  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

make  it  his  study  to  qualify  himself  for  that  important  duty:  to 
this  point  we  most  particularly  invite  his  earnest  attention,  and 
beg  to  refer  him  for  useful  hints  upon  this  subject,  to  Chapter 
VI.  p.  176,  &c.  ante.  And  should  he  conscientiously  sustain 
the  character  which  we  have  laid  down  at  the  commencement  of 
this  article,  he  will  not  only  acquit  himself  with  credit  to  his  em- 
ployer, but  also  prove  by  his  conduct  that  he  is  an  ornament  to 
society  in  general. 

Th'  man  who  aspires  to  this  high  station, 
Should  for  his  guide  seek  moderation ; 

And  justice  keep  in  view: 

But  few  there  are  who  reach  the  wish'd  for  height, 
That  justly  keep  strict  equity  in  sight, 

And  render  each  his  due-. 

To  the  Employer  too  much  court  is  paid, 
When  by  the  men  ih'  entrapping  snares  are  laid, 

To  catch  the  wary  elf: 
Who,  unsuspecting,  daily  plods  along, 
Nor  heeds  the  snares  placed  by  the  wily  throng, 

To  entrap  his  noble  self. 

The  bubble,  thus  kept  up  in  air  so  long, 
Thro'  flattering  tales  and  fulsome  tongue, 

By  schemes  at  length  is  burst ; 
His  office  lost,  he  then  most  deeply  wails, 
To  hide  his  shame  he  now  invents  new  tales, 

And  deems  his  lot  most  curst. 

A  warning  this,  for  those  who  dare  aspire, 

When  in  this  birth  to  raise  themselves  much  higher, 

Arid  think  't  will  last  for  life  ; 

Should  they  but  once  o'erstep  the  compass  bound, 
Their  folly  brings  them  quickly  to  the  ground, 

To  end  their  days  in  strife. 


RULES  AND  REGULATIONS  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN 
A  PRINTING-OFFICE. 

1.  Compositors  to  receive  their  cases  from  the  Overseer,  01 
other  persons  appointed  by  him,  free  from  all  pi,  or  other  hetero- 
geneous matter,  with  clean  quadrat  and  space  boxes,  both  Ro- 
man and  Italic,  which  they  are  to  return  to  him  in  the  same  state. 

2.  When  a  compositor  receives  letter,  furniture,  &c.  from  the 
Overseer,  he  is  to  return  what  he  does  not  use,  in  the  same 
state  he  received  it,  the  same  day. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  217 

3    Compositors  to  impose  their  matter  when  desired  by  the 
Employer  or  Overseer;  also  to  correct  proof's,,  unless  in  either  ( 
case  it  shall  appear  that  all  the  stones  were  engaged,  in  which 
case  he  should  seize  the  first  opportunity.  • 

4.  The  proofs  when  pulled    to  be  given  to  the   reader,  or 
carried  into  the  reading  closet,  with,  if  a  first  proof,  the  copy, 
and,  if  a  second,  the  foul  proof. 

5.  Compositors  not  to  leave  a  foul  stone,  either  of  letter  or 
furniture. 

6.  A  compositor  is  not  to  detain  an  imposing  stone  longer 
than  the  nature  of  the  business  may  require. 

7.  When   any  cases  are  taken  out  of  the  racks,  the   com- 
positor is  to  return  them  into  the  proper  place  immediately  after 
he  has  done  with  the  same. 

8.  No  cases  to  be  placed  over  others,  or  under  the  frames. 

9.  Galleys,  with  head-lines,  or  other  useful  materials,  used 
during  the  course  of  a  piece  of  work,  to  be  cleared  the  day  after 
the  work  is  ail  completely  at  press. 

10.  When  a  work  is  completely  finished,  the  compositor  or 
compositors  concerned,  shall,  before  he  or  they  begin  another 
work,  unless  prevented  by  the  Employer  or   Overseer,  clear 
away  the  forms,  taking  from  them  the  head  lines,  white  lines, 
direction  lines,  as  also  the  leads  and  riglets :  which,  with  the 
furniture  of  each  sheet,  and  the  matter  properly  tied  up  for 
papering,  are  to  be  given  to  the  Overseer. 

11.  Sweepings   of  frames   to   be  cleared   away   before   one 
o'clock  every  day.     Matter  broken   by  accident   to  be  cleared 
away  on  the  same  day. 

12.  The  saw,  saw-block,  bowl,  sponge,  letter-brush,  shears, 
bellows,  &,c.,  to  be  returned  to  their  respective  places  as  soon 
as  done  with. 

13.  That  pi  of  any  sort,   on  boards,  windows,   frames,  &,c. 
shall  he  cleared  after  five  minutes'  notice. 

14.  No  person  shall  take  sorts  from  the  frames  or  cases  of 
another  without  leave,  nor  hoard  useful  sorts,  not  wanting  or 
likely  to  want  them. 

15.  Compositors  employed    by  the  week,  to  work  not   less 
than  ten  hours  ppr  day. 


218 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


THE  BEST  MEANS  OP  EXPEDITING  WORKS  OF  A 
TEMPORARY  AND  URGENT  NATURE. 

A  judicious  distribution  of  the  employment  of  workmen  in 
every  kind  of  business,  is  the  only  means  of  expediting  it. 
This  observation  applies  very  forcibly  to  the  printing  business. 
Pamphlets  and  other  works  of  a  temporary  nature,  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  print  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours ;  to  ac- 
complish this,  the  utmost  exertion,  accompanied  with  skilful 
management,  is  requisite;  we  shall,  therefore,  lay  down  a  plan 
which  we  conceive  will  be  found  fully  to  answer  this  purpose. 

As  soon  as  a  work  of  this  nature  is  put  in  hand,  it  must  be 
the  business  of  the  Overseer  to  select  such  men  as  are  able  to 
complete  the  greatest  quantity  of  work  in  a  given  time.  We 
will  suppose  eight  men  are  ordered  to  distribute  letter  for  it. 
Their  first  concern  must  be,  to  appoint  one  from  among  them 
who  thoroughly  understands  his  business,  and  is  in  othsr 
respects  qualified  to  undertake  the  management  of  the  work,  to 
make  it  up,  and  to  do  every  thing  which  interferes  with  the 
regular  business  of  distributing,  composing,  and  correcting. 

Having  done  this,  let  them  proceed  to  the  distribution  of  their 
letter;  while  the  clicker,  or  person  appointed  to  manage  the  job, 
applies  to  the  Overseer  for  the  copy,  receives  instructions 
respecting  it,  and  procures  leads  and  every  other  necessary  sort. 
He  then  draws  out  the  following  table : 


Compositors'  Names. 

Folios  of 
Copy. 

Lines 
Composed. 

Memorandums. 

In  the  first  column  he  sets  down  the  name  of  each  com- 
positor when  he  takes  copy ;  and,  in  the  second,  the  folio  of  the 
copy,  that  he  may  be  able  to  ascertain  instantly  in  whose  hands 
it  lies.  In  the  third  column  he  notes  down  the  number  of  lines 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  219 

each  man  has  composed,  opposite  to  his  name,  as  fast  as  the 
gallies  are  brought  to  him.  In  the  fourth,  he  sets  down  such 
remarks  lespecting  the  copy,  &,c.  as  may  be  necessary,  and  also 
any  circumstance  that  may  occur  in  the  companionship. 

By  this  means  each  compositor  will  receive  a  share  of  the 
amount,  according  to  the  number  of  lines  he  composes,  and  the 
clicker  must  have  an  equal  share  with  the  person  who  sets  the 
greatest  quantity :  or  it  may  be  done  by  limiting  the  quantity 
each  man  is  to  compose  in  an  hour;  whoever  is  deficient  in  this 
quantity,  must  suffer  a  proportionate  deduction  from  his  share 
of  the  work. 

When  the  members  of  the  companionship  are  ready  for  their 
first  taking  of  copy,  they  are  to  receive  it  from  the  clicker  in 
pieces  as  short  as  possible,  taking  care  that  the  two  first  have 
shorter  takings  than  either  of  the  others,  to  prevent,  as  much 
as  possible,  any  delay  in  the  making  up.  During  the  time  the 
first  taking  is  in  hand,  the  clicker  sets  the  half-head,  head  lines, 
white  lines,  and  signature  lines,  together  with  side  notes,  and 
other  extraneous  matter. 

As  soon  as  the  first  person  brings  him  his  matter,  he  counts  off 
the  number  of  lines,  and  inserts  them  in  the  table;  then  gives 
him  another  taking  of  copy,  and  proceeds  with  the  making  up. 
The  same  plan  is  observed  with  the  rest  of  the  companionship. 

When  the  first  sheet  is  made  up,  he  lays  the  pages  on  the 
stone,  and  informs  the  Overseer  of  it,  who  will  then  immedi- 
ately procure  chases  and  furniture. 

The  work  will  now  proceed  rapidly,  provided  the  composi- 
tors stick  close  to  their  business,  and  there  be  no  hindrance 
with  respect  to  letter,  &.C.,  which  depends  on  the  good  manage- 
ment of  the  Overseer.  If  the  clicker  finds  that  he  cannot  make 
up  the  matter  as  fast  as  it  is  composed,  he  should  call  one  of  the 
compositors  to  his  assistance,  who  must  be  the  person  last  in 
copy.  In  this  case  he  counts  the  lines  he  has  composed,  sets 
them  down  in  the  table,  and  takes  notice  of  the  time  he  is  off, 
which  is  to  be  made  up  to  him  by  a  deduction  from  the  share 
of  each  person. 

The  proofs  should  be  read  immediately  after  they  are  pulled, 
and  given  to  the  clicker  to  be  corrected.  As  soon  as  this  is  done, 
19* 


220  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

he  lays  up  the  forms,  and  gives  the  proof  to  the  compositor 
whose  matter  stands  first,  who  should  immediately  correct  it,  then 
forward  it  to  the  next,  and  so  on,  till  the  sheet  be  corrected ;  the 
clicker  then  locks  it  up,  and  carries  the  forms  to  the  proof-press 

As  soon  as  one  of  the  companionship  is  out  of  copy,  and 
there  is  no  more  to  be  given  out,  the  lines  of  the  whole  must  be 
counted  off,  and  set  down  in  the  table,  which  closes  the  account, 
and  then  every  one  does  as  much  as  he  can  for  the  general 
benefit.  If  there  be  not  work  enough  to  employ  the  whole, 
those  who  are  not  wanted  may  go  to  their  regular  work,  and 
the  time  of  their  absence,  till  the  rest  of  the  companionship 
return  to  theirs,  be  deducted  from  their  respective  shares. 

It  would  save  time  in  making  calculations,  could  the  com- 
panionship agree  to  divide  the  amount  of  the  bill  between  them 
in  equal  proportions,  and  merely  fine  those  who  absent  them- 
selves from  the  office;  but  as  some  compositors  will  set  con- 
siderably more  than  others,  the  above  mode  will,  we  conceive, 
be  found  to  answer  best,  as  it  excites  a  spirit  of  emulation,  and 
induces  them  to  pursue  their  work  with  vigor. 


RULES  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN  COMPANIONSHIP. 

THE  disputes  which  frequently  arise  in  a  printing-office  upon 
trifling  as  well  as  intricate  points,  can  only  be  settled  by  a 
reference  to  the  general  custom  and  usage  of  the  trade.  These 
misunderstandings,  which  annoy  and  retard  business,  often 
take  place  in  companionships  consisting  of  three  or  four  com- 
positors; it  is  therefore  highly  desirable  that  the  generally 
received  rules  and  regulations  on  this  subject,  should  be  ex- 
plicitly and  clearly  laid  down  for  the  future  comfort  and  govern- 
ment of  the  compositor. 


TAKING  COPY. 

Tr  printed  copy,  and  the  compositor  is  desired  to  follow  page 
for  page,  each  sheet,  as  it  is  given  out,  should  be  divided  into 
as  many  parts  as  the  companionship  may  consist  of,  in  which 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  221 

case  the  bulk  of  the  copy  must  not  be  subject  to  the  inspection 
of  the  companionship,  but  kept  by  the  Overseer,  and  dealt  out 
by  him  as  it  is  wanted,  or  it  will  inevitably  cause  contention; 
for  the  compositor  likely  to  be  first  out  of  copy,  if  he  has  free 
access  to  that  which  remains  unfinished,  will  observe  whether 
the  next  taking  be  fat  or  lean — if  the  latter,  he  will  hold  back 
and  loiter  away  his  time,  in  order  to  avoid  it,  and  thus  mate- 
rially delay  the  work.  On  the  other  hand,  if  this  taking  appears 
to  be  advantageous,  and  there  should  happen  to  be  two  or  three 
of  the  companionship  out  of  copy  at  the  same  time,  a  sort  of 
scramble  will  take  place  who  shall  have  it,  which  will  end  in 
dispute  and  confusion :  on  no  account,  therefore,  should  the 
copy  be  open  to  examination.  If  the  copy  be  manuscript,  or 
not  page  for  page,  the  Overseer  should  give  it  out  in  such  por- 
tions as  will,  in  his  judgment,  insure  regularity  in  the  progress 
of  the  work;  and  should,  in  all  cases,  mark  the  name  of  the 
compositor  in  the  margin,  opposite  the  paragraph  where  he  is 
to  commence.  Compositors  are  apt  to  desire  a  large  portion  of 
copy,  with  the  view  of  advantage  in  -the  making  up,  though 
nine  times  in  ten  it  will,  as  before  observed,  operate  as  a  loss  to 
them,  by  their  eventually  standing  still  for  want  of  letter.  If  by 
mistake  too  much  copy  has  been  taken,  the  compositor  should 
hand  a  part  of  it  to  the  person  next  in  the  making  up,  to  set  up 
to  himself. 

If  parts  of  the  copy  should  be  particularly  advantageous  or 
otherwise,  each  of  the  companionship  may  throw  for  the  chance 
of  it:  the  person  to  whom  it  may  fall,  if  he  have  copy  in  hand, 
must  turn  that  copy  over  to  him  who  is  about  to  receive  more 
copy ;  but  for  trifling  variations  from  the  general  state  of  the 
copy,  it  cannot  be  worth  the  loss  of  time  necessary  to  contest 
it;  though  it  frequently  happens  that  a  litigious  man  will  anjue 
half  an  hour  on  a  point  that  would  not  have  made  five  minutes' 
difference  to  him  in  the  course  of  his  day's  work. 

If  one  of  the  companionship  absents  himself  from  business, 
and  thereby  delays  the  making  up,  and  there  is  the  smallest 
probability  of  standing  still  for  want  of  letter,  the  person  who 
has  the  last  taking  must  go  on  with  this  man's  copy,  whether 
it  be  good  or  bad. 


222  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

.    MAKING  UP. 

THE  compositor  having  the  first  take  on  the  work,  as  soon  as 
he  has  completed  it,  proceeds  without  delay  to  making  up  his 
matter  into  pages,  according  to  the  directions  laid  down  in  our 
observations  on  composing.  Having  completed  as  many  pages 
as  his  matter  will  make,  he  passes  the  overplus,  it  less  than 
half  a  page,  with  the  correct  head  and  folio,  to  the  compositor 
whose  matter  follows  his,  at  the  same  time  taking  an  account 
of  the  number  of  lines  loaned;  if,  on  the  contrary,  the  overplus 
makes  more  than  half  a  page,  he  borrows  a  sufficient  number 
of  lines  to  complete  his  page,  each  compositor  keeping  an  ac- 
count of  the  number  of  lines  borrowed  and  loaned.  His  last 
page  being  completed,  he  passes  the  make  up  to  the  compositor 
next  in  succession,  by  handing  him  the  proper  head  lines  and 
folio  for  the  following  page;  each  compositor  passing  the  make 
up  in  like  manner  without  delay. 

MAKING  UP  OF  LETTER. 

THE  number  of  the  companionship,  if  possible,  should  always 
be  determined  on  at  the  commencement  of  the  work,  that  they 
may  all  proceed  upon  an  equal  footing.  It  should  be  well  ascer- 
tained that  the  letter  appropriated  for  the  work  will  be  adequate 
to  keep  the  persons  on  it  fully  employed. 

If  any  part  of  the  matter  for  distribution,  whether  in  chase  or 
in  paper,  be  desirable  or  otherwise,  for  the  sorts  it  may  contain, 
it  should  be  divided  equally,  or  the  choice  of  it  thrown  for. 

When  a  new  companion  is  put  on  the  work  after  the  respec- 
tive shares  of  letter  are  made  up,  and  if  there  be  not  a  suffi- 
ciency to  carry  on  all  the  companionship  without  making  up 
more,  he  must  make  up  an  additional  quantity  before  he  can  be 
allowed  to  partake  of  any  part  of  that  which  comes  from  the  press. 


MAKING  UP  FURNITURE. 

Two  of  the  companionship  who  may  have  the  greatest  propor- 
tion of  the  first  sheet,  should  make  up  the  furniture  for  that 
sheet;  and  though  it  may  be  thought  that  a  disadvantage  will 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


223 


be  felt  iu  making  up  the  first  sheet,  they  having  to  ascertain  the 
right  margin,  yet,,  properly  considered,  this  disadvantage  is 
sufficiently  balanced  by  their  not  being  likely  to  meet  with  a 
scarcity  of  furniture,  which  will  frequently  occur  after  several 
sheets  are  made  up.  The  other  companions  in  rotation,  as 
their  matter  is  made  up,  will  take  an  equal  share  of  the  furni- 
ture. Should  an  odd  sheet  be  wanted,  it  will  be  better  to  throw 
for  the  chance  of  making  it  up. 


IMPOSING  AND  DISTRIBUTING  LETTER. 

THE  person  to  whose  turn  it  falls  to  impose,  must  lay  up  the 
form  for  distribution;  but  as  continual  disputes  arise  on  this 
subject,  and  as  it  can  only  be  ascertained  by  comparing  the 
number  of  pages  composed,  with  the  number  put  in  chase  by 
each  person,  we  therefore  recommend  their  keeping  an  exact 
account  of  these  pages,  which  had  better  be  done  agreeably  to 
the  following 

Plan  of  an  Imposition  Book. 


Frost's  United  States. 

» 

By  whom 
imposed. 

d 

|c       « 

^        C 

o 

t-3 

Reiter. 

^ 
W 

'3 

B       5 

2 

2 

3 

Jones. 

C       2 

3 

5 

2 

Stilie. 

D 

E 

F 

This  book  should  always  be  kept  in  a  convenient  place,  so 
that  each  compositor  may  mark  down  the  number  of  pages  he 
has  made  up,  opposite  to  the  proper  signature,  and  under  his 
own  name;  also  when  he  imposes,  he  inserts  his  name  in  the 


224  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

column  appropriated  for  that  purpose.  By  following  strictly 
this  mode,  every  sort  of  dispute  will  be  prevented;  and  though 
a  private  account  may  be  necessary  for  individual  satisfaction, 
yet  it  will  not  avail  in  settling  a  general  misunderstanding,  as 
the  various  private  accounts  may  differ,,  and  the  charge  of  inac- 
curacy may  be  alleged  with  as  much  reason  against  one  as  the 
other;  but  in  this  general  scale  a  mistake  can  be  immediately 
detected.  It  also  operates  as  a  check  on  those  who  may  be  in- 
clined to  write  out  of  their  proper  signature,  or  to  charge  more 
pages  than  they  have  imposed. 

As  the  letter  is  laid  up,  it  should  be  divided  m  equal  propor- 
tions; and,  if  it  can  be  so  managed,  each  person  had  better 
distribute  the  matter  originally  composed  by  him;  for  by  this 
means,  the  sorts  which  have  made  his  case  uneven  will  again 
return  to  him.  It  may  happen,  from  one  of  the  companionship 
absenting  himself,  that  his  former  share  of  letter  remains  undis- 
tributed at  a  time  a  second  division  is  taking  place;  under  these 
circumstances,  he  must  not  be  included  in  this  division.  In  the 
event  of  a  scarcity  of  letter,  if  any  man  absent  himself  beyond  a 
reasonable  time,  his  undistributed  matter  should  be  divided 
equally  among  his  companions,  and  when  he  returns,  he  may 
then  have  his  share  of  the  next  division. 


CORRECTING. 

THE  compositor,  whose  matter  is  in  the  first  part  of  the  proof, 
lays  up  the  forms  on  the  imposing  stone,  and  corrects.  He 
then  hands  the  proof  to  the  person  who  has  the  following  mat- 
ter. The  compositor  who  corrects  the  last  part  of  the  sheet, 
locks  up  the  forms. 

The  compositor  having  matter  in  the  first  and  last  part,  but 
not  the  middle  of  the  sheet,  only  lays  up  the  form  and  corrects 
his  matter;  the  locking  up  is  left  to  the  person  who  corrects 
last  in  the  sheet. 

A  compositor  having  the  first  page  only  of  the  sheet,  is  re- 
quired to  lay  up  one  form;  also  to  lock  up  one  form  if  he  has 
only  the  last  page. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  225 

If  from  carelessness  in  locking  up  the  form,  viz.  the  furniture 
binding,  the  quoins  badly  fitted,  &c. — any  letters,  or  even  a  page 
should  fall  out,  the  person  who  thus  locked  up  the  form  must 
immediately  repair  the  damage.  But  if  from  bad  justification, 
or  in  leaded  matter  the  letters  ride  upon  the  ends  of  the  leads, 
the  loss  attending  any  accident  from  this  circumstance,  must 
fall  upon  the  person  to  whom  the  matter  belongs. 

It  is  the  business  of  the  person  who  locks  up  the  form,  to 
ascertain  whether  all  the  pages  are  of  an  equal  length;  and 
though  a  defect  in  this  respect  is  highly  reprehensible  in  the 
person  to  whom  it  attaches,  (whose  duty  it  is  to  rectify  it,)  yet 
if  not  previously  discovered  by  the  locker-up,  and  an  accident 
happen,  he  must  make  good  the  defect. 

The  compositor  who  imposes  a  sheet,  must  correct  the 
chargeable  proof  of  that  sheet,  which  is  also  generally  at  the 
same  time  corrected  for  press,  and  take  it  to  the  ready  place. 
He  must  also  rectify  any  defect  in  the  register,  arising  from 
want  of  accuracy  in  the  furniture. 

Forms  will  sometimes  remain  a  considerable  length  of  time 
before  they  are  put  to  press.  When  this  happens,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  summer,  the  furniture  is  likely  to  shrink,  and 
the  pages  will,  in  consequence,  if  care  be  not  taken,  fall  out;  it 
is  therefore  the  business  of  the  person  who  has  locked  up  the 
form,  to  attend  to  it  in  this  respect,  or  he  will  be  subject  to 
make  good  any  accident  which  his  neglect  may  occasion. 

The  liability  to  accidents  of  this  nature  has  been  greatly 
lessened  by  recent  improvements,  viz.  the  introduction  of  metal 
furniture  and  quoins;  the  former  we  have  previously  alluded 
to — the  latter  is  of  recent  invention,  and  has  not  yet  been  offered 
to  the  trade.  The  Iron  Screw  Q,uoin  was  invented  by  Mr.  E. 
M.  Maeder,  of  Philadelphia,  and  consists  of  a  screw  working 
into  a  square  iron  shoulder  about  two  inches  in  length,  and  about, 
half  anjnch  in  thickness,  which  is  placed  against  a  side  stick 
without  bevel,  the  pointed  head  of  the  screw  bearing  against 
the  inner  side  of  the  chase; — by  applying  a  small  rack  to  the 
cogged  head  of  the  screw,  the  form  can  be  locked  or  screwed 
up  to  any  degree  of  tightness  without  noise,  and  with  but  little 
exertion  on  the  part  of  the  compositor,  and  having  at  least  half 


226  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

an  inch  play,  will  seldom  require  to  be  changed.  From  our 
knowledge  of  the  advantages  of  these  quoins,  we  unhesitatingly 
recommend  them  to  the  favorable  notice  of  the  profession. 

When  forms  are  wrought  off,  and  ordered  to  be  kept  stand- 
ing, they  are  then  considered  under  the  care  of  the  Overseer. 
When  they  are  desired  to  be  cleared  away,  it  is  done  in  equal 
proportions  by  the  companionship.  During  the  time  any  forms 
may  have  remained  under  the  care  of  the  Overseer,  should 
there  have  been  any  alteration  as  to  form  or  substance,  such 
alterations  not  having  been  made  by  the  original  compositors, 
they  are  not  subject  to  clear  away  those  parts  of  the  form  that 
were  altered.  If  the  pressmen  unlock  a  form  on  the  press,  and 
from  carelessness  in  the  locking  up,  any  part  of  it  fall  out,  they 
are  subject  to  the  loss  that  may  happen  in  consequence. 

The  compositor  who  locks  up  a  sheet,  takes  it  to  the  proof- 
press,  and  after  he  has  pulled  a  proof  of  it,  hands  it,  together 
with  the  foul  proof,  to  the  reader,  and  deposits  the  form  in  a 
place  appointed  for  that  purpose. 


TRANSPOSITION  OF  PAGES. 

EACH  person  in  the  companionship  must  lay  down  his  pages 
properly  on  the  stone  for  imposition.  The  compositor,  whose 
turn  it  is  to  impose,  looks  them  over  to  see  if  they  are  rightly 
placed;  should  they,  after  this  examination,  lay  improperly, 
and  be  thus  imposed,  it  will  be  his  business  to  transpose  them ; 
but  should  the  folios  be  wrong,  and  the  mistake  arise  from  this 
inaccuracy,  it  must  be  rectified  by  the  person  to  whom  the  mat- 
ter belongs.  Pages  being  laid  down  for  imposition,  without 
folios  or  head  lines,  must  be  rectified  by  the  person  who  has 
been  slovenly  enough  to  adopt  this  plan. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    PEESS. 


From  thee,  O  Press  !  what  blessings  flow 
T7  unworthy  mortals  here  below  ! 

Life's  path  to  smooth  : 
The  Widow's  cause,  the  Infant's  tear, 
In  thee  a  friend  are  sure  to  rear ; 

Their  loss  to  sooth. 

Through  thee,  fair  Liberty  will  stand, 
The  proudest  boast  throughout  this  land; 

See  Hist'ry's  page  ! 
The  Press  enslav'd,  she'll  inly  moan, 
And  freedom's  sons  in  chains  may  groan, 

From  age  to  age. 


HOWEVER  laudable  it  may  be  to  cultivate  the  art  to  perfection, 
it  is  to  its  common  and  more  general  application  that  we  are  to 
look  for  its  great  and  beneficial  effects  upon  the  human  intellect, 
and  upon  nations  and  societies  of  men.  The  Press  is  the  great 
engine  by  which  man  is  enabled  to  improve  the  faculties  of  his 
nature;  it  is  the  preserver  of  the  knowledge  and  acquirements 
of  former  generations,  and  the  great  barrier,  when  not  perverted 
by  the  hand  of  power,  against  the  debasement  of  the  human 
mind,  and  the  equalizing  effects  of  despotism. 

In  the  accomplishment  of  what  we  have  here  undertaken,  we 
shall  strictly  adhere  to  those  rules  which  experience  and  obser- 
vation have  enabled  us  to  select  for  our  guidance,  and  which, 
we  feel  persuaded,  are  in  accordance  with  the  advanced  state 
of  this  important  branch  of  the  art,  a  branch  which  is  the  very 
end  and  consummation  of  all  the  compositor's  previous  caie 
and  labor — a  branch  which,  if  in  the  least  degree  neglected,  will 
cause  all  his  taste  and  skill  in  composition,  and  the  employer's 
expenses  in  beautiful  type,  to  be  passed  over  disregarded. 

20 


228  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

In  former  works  upon  this  subject  the  directions  to  Pressmen 
have  been  found  to  be  quite  inadequate,  being  in  a  great 
measure  confined  to  the  two-pull  Press,  and  to  the  minutiae  of 
balls,  beating,  &,c.  The  various  improvements  in  the  art  since 
those  directions  were  written,  have  rendered  them  entirely 
obsolete,  and  it  therefore  devolves  upon  us  to  offer  such  new 
directions  as  will  suffice  to  acquaint  the  beginner  with  the  pecu- 
liarities of  modern  press-work. 

Industrious  and  careful  pressmen  must  stand  high  in  the 
estimation  of  every  master  printer,  yet  it  is  to  be  lamented  that 
so  few  endeavor  to  merit  so  desirable  an  appellation,  and  one  so 
easily  acquired  by  a  little  care  and  attention. 

We  shall  now  lay  down  a  few  directions,  which,  if  properly 
attended  to,  will  enable  the  pressman  to  execute  his  work  in  a 
manner  that  will  do  credit  to  himself  and  justice  to  his  employer. 


SETTING  UP  A  PRESS. 

UNDER  this  head  might  be  introduced  an  almost  unlimited 
variety  of  operations,  yet  it  is  our  intention  here  to  confine 
ourselves  to  a  few  remarks  upon  putting  up  those  hand  presses 
now  in  general  use. 

Having  placed  our  frame  in  an  erect  position  upon  its  feet, 
we  next  place  the  ribs  in  their  allotted  situation,  where  they  are 
fastened  by  means  of  screws,  and  the  stay  put  under  the  near 
end;  we  then  lift  the  bed  into  the  ribs,  and  commence  nailing 
the  girths  in  their  proper  places  upon  the  barrel  of  the  rounce, 
after  which  they  are  secured  at  the  end  of  the  bed ;  when  the 
press  is  run  out,  the  double  girths  should  be  about  half  a  turn 
or  more  round  the  barrel;  the  off  single  girth  about  two  or  three 
turns  round  it.  The  position  of  the  rounce  when  run  out  should 
incline  a  little  forward  of  a  perpendicular  line,  and  when  run  in, 
a  little  above  a  horizontal  line  on  the  near  side;  to  accomplish 
which  it  may  be  necessary  to  loosen  the  girths  at  one  end  of  the 
bed,  and  to  draw  them  up  at  the  other.  We  then  commence 
levelling  our  bed,  which  should  be  done  with  a  spirit-level  if 
convenient,  if  not,  an  ordinary  carpenters'  level,  raising  either 
end  uf  the  press  by  small  blocks  or  wedges  under  the  feet,  or 
fore  stay,  as  may  be  required. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  229 

Having  ascertained  our  bed  to  lie  truly  horizontal,  and  having 
placed  bearers  at  each  end,  upon  which  to  rest  the  platen,  we 
run  it  in  to  its  proper  place,  where  it  is  attached  to  the  suspend- 
tng'rods ;  being  careful  to  observe  that  the  marked  end  of  the 
platen  is  front,  and  that  the  marks  on  the  nuts  or  screws  cor- 
respond with  those  on  the  platen.  In  screwing  down  the 
springs  we  should  avoid  compressing  them  too  much,,  as  it 
would  be  likely  to  weaken  them,,  at  the  same  time  screwing 
them  sufficiently  tight  to  hold  the  toggles  in  their  place,  and  to 
cause  the  platen  to  rise  quickly  after  an  impression  has  been 
given.  We  also  take  notice  that  the  platen  falls  perfectly 
horizontal,  and  that  all  four  corners  touch  the  type  at  the  same 
time,  w.hich  may  be  regulated  by  screwing  or  unscrewing  the 
nuts  at  either  corner,  and  inserting  between  them  and  the 
platen,  if  necessary,  a  piece  of  tin  or  rule. 

The  levers,  toggles  and  oil  cups  being  well  oiled  in  their 
joints,  and  placed  in  their  respective  places,  we  then  proceed  to 

SETTING  UP  THE  ROLLER  STAND. 

THE  roller  stand  containing  the  distributing  cylinder,  should  be 
regulated  to  the  height  of  the  press,  bringing  the  shelf  or  bridge 
even  with  the  corner  irons,  and  of  sufficient  distance  from  the 
bed  to  allow  it  to  run  clear;  the  stand  should  then  be  firmly 
braced,  as  the  constant  turning  of  the  rounce  is  very  apt  to 
loosen  it,  meanwhile  being  cautious  to  observe  that  the  rounce 
in  its  revolutions  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  frame  of 
the  tympan  when  up.  The  position  of  the  distributing  cylinder 
should  be  sufficiently  high  to  allow  the  two  composition  rollers, 
at  least  one  inch  apart,  to  rest  on  its  top  without  danger  of 
touching  the  shelf  or  bridge  in  front;  we  have  found  it  advan- 
tageous to  nail  two  narrow  strips  of  sole  leather  on  the  face  of 
the  shelf,  about  eight  or  ten  inches  from  each  end,  which,  acting 
as  bearers,  cause  the  rollers  to  pass  very  smoothly  over  them. 

The  roller  handle  while  in  use  should  lie  in  a  horizontal 
position,  the  back  end  being  supported  by  a  bar  of  wood  or  iron 
running  parallel  with  the  distributing  cylinder.  There  should 
be  a  notch,  or  hook,  about  two  inches  from  the  end  of  the 
handle  to  catch  on  the  wooden  supporter,  to  prevent  the  rollers 


230  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

from  jumping  forward  while  distributing  or  changing.  It  is 
also  necessary  to  have  a  back-board  for  the  end  of  the  roller  to 
strike  against  in  coming  off  the  form,  to  prevent  the  rollers 
from  falling  backwards. 

The  ink-block  is  placed  about  five  or  six  inches  to  the  right 
of  the  roller  handle,  and  about  on  a  level  with  it;  it  is  furnished 
with  the  ink  slice,  and  a  brayer,  or  a  small  roller  about  four  or 
five  inches  long,  and  of  the  same  circumference  with  the  large 
rollers,  being  cast  in  the  same  mould. 

A  few  years  since  a  great  improvement  was  effected  by  hav- 
ing the  ink-block  made  of  cast  iron,  for  the  following  reason  : — 
it  had  been  found  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  men 
to  work  the  fine  and  stiff  inks  in  cold  weather,  to  have  in  the 
press  room  what  was  denominated  a  moveable  ink-stand;  this 
was  a  small  square  table,  with  an  iron  plate  for  the  top,  under 
which  was  a  shelf  to  contain  a  lamp  to  warm  the  ink,  and 
render  it  free  to  work;  this  was,  of  course,  moved  to  the  side  of 
each  press  as  wanted,  but  often  proved  a  cumbrous  article  in  a 
crowded  room,  when  not  wanted.  The  iron  ink-block,  with  a 
little  shelf  underneath  it,  answers  every  purpose  of  the  above 
described  apparatus,  with  this  additional  advantage  over  the 
wooden  one,  it  keeps  the  ink  cooler  in  hot  weather. 


COVERING  TYMPANS. 

THE  tympans  are  generally  covered  with  parchment.  They 
should  be  of  an  even  thickness,  and  about  two  inches  and  a 
half  wider,  and  three  inches  longer  than  the  tympans.  Tym- 
pans have  been  sometimes  covered  with  linen,  which,  on 
account  of  its  evenness,  would  answer  the  purpose ;  but  it  is  so 
apt  to  stretch,  that  the  tympans  become  slack  in  a  short  time, 
and  bag,  (as  it  is  termed,)  which  occasions  a  slur  on  the  work. 
Muslin  and  silk  have  been  used,  but  are  likewise  subject  to  the 
same  objection  as  linen.  They  are,  however,  still  used  for 
newspapers,  and  other  large  works,  where  parchment  cannot 
be  obtained  of  sufficient  dimensions. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  231 

Having  provided  some  stiff  paste,,  he  lays  so  much  of  it  on 
the  edges  of  the  skin,  as  will  cover  the  frame  of  the  tympan, 
which  is  also  well  pasted.  He  then  lays  the  skin  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  frame,  with  the  flesh  side  to  face  the  type,  and 
draws  it  regularly,  as  tight  as  possible,  on  all  sides.  That  part 
of  the  skin  that  comes  on  the  grooves  of  the  tympan  which  re- 
ceives the  point-screws,  is  cut  and  wrapt  round  the  inside  edge 
of  the  groove,  which  admits  a  free  passage  for  the  screws. 
After  having  fastened  the  skin  on  the  sides  of  the  tympan,  he 
draws  it  towards  the  joints  which  receive  the  frisket,  and  with 
a  knife  cuts  across  these  joints  to  let  them  through  the  skin;  he 
then  puts  the  frisket  pins  through  the  same,  and  makes  that 
end  of  the  tympan  fast.  He  next  proceeds  to  the  lower  joints, 
and  brings  the  skin  as  tight  as  he  can  round  that  part  of  the 
tympan.  The  point-screws  and  duck-bill  are  then  put  on, 
which  prevent  the  skin  from  starting.  The  inner  tympan,  or 
drawer,  is  covered  in  the  same  manner.  To  prevent  their 
warping  when  the  skin  begins  to  draw,  pieces  of  furniture,  or 
wood  of  any  kind,  should  be  placed  across  the  centre  till  they 
are  perfectly  dry. 

The  skins  are  put  on  either  wet  or  dry;  if  dry,  they  should 
be  afterwards  well  wet,  which  makes  them  give  for  the  moment; 
but  as  they  dry,  they  contract,  and  are  by  this  means  rendered 
much  tighter  than  they  would  be  if  put  on  wet. 


WETTING  PAPER. 

PAPER  should  be  wet  in  a  trough  kept  for  the  purpose,  rilled 
with  clean  writer.  The  size  of  this  trough  should  be  about  two 
inches  longer  and  wider  (when  folded.)  than  the  largest  sized 
paper  that  it  is  probable  will  have  to  be  wet  in  it,  and  ribout  six 
inches  deep.  It  should  have  a  cover  with  hinges  on  the  left 
side,  that  the  cover  may  fall  over  on  that  side,  and,  resting 
horizontally,  serve  the  purpose  of  a  shelf  to  lay  the  paper  upon 
previous  to  its  being  wet. 

Having   received    a   sufficient   quantity  of  paper   from  the 
Warehouseman,  counted  out.  the  pressmen   lays  one  he^p  on 


232  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

the  shelf  attached  to  the  paper  trough,  laying  the  first  token 
across  the  heap  with  the  back  of  the  quires  towards  his  right 
hand,  that  he  may  know  when  to  turn  the  token  sheet,  and  that 
he  may  the  readier  catch  at  the  back  of  each  quire  with  that 
hand,  for  the  purpose  of  dipping  it.  He  then  places  his  paper- 
board  with  its  breadth  before  him  on  his  right,  usually  on  the 
ley  trough,  laying  a  wrapper,  or  a  waste  sheet  of  paper  on  the 
board,  that  it  may  not  soil  the  first  sheet  of  the  heap. 

He  then  takes  a  quire  by  the  centre  of  the  back  with  his  right 
hand,  and  the  edge  of  it  in  his  left,  and  closing  his  hands  a 
little,  that  the  quire  may  bend  downward  between  his  hands, 
he  dips  the  back  of  the  quire  into  the  left  hand  side  of  the 
trough,  and  relinquishing  his  hold  with  the  left  hand,  draws 
the  quire  briskly  through  the  water  with  his  right ;  as  the  quire 
comes  out,  he  quickly  catches  the  edge  of  it  again  in  his  left 
hand,  and  brings  it  to  the  heap ;  and  by  lifting  up  his  left  hand, 
bears  the  under  side  of  the  quire  off  the  paper  previously  laid 
down,  till  he  has  placed  the  quire  in  an  even  position.  But 
this  drawing  the  quire  through  the  water  he  performs  either 
quick  or  slow;  if  the  paper  be  weak  and  spongy,  he  performs 
it  quickly;  if  strong  and  stubborn,  slowly.  To  place  the  quire 
in  an  even  position,  he  lays  the  back  of  it  exactly  upon  the 
open  crease  of  the  former,  and  then  lets  the  side  of  the  quire  in 
his  left  hand  fall  flat  down  upon  the  heap,  and  discharging  his 
right  hand,  brings  it  to  the  edge  of  the  quire,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  his  left  thumb,  still  in  its  first  position,  opens  or 
divides  either  a  third  or  a  half  of  the  quire,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  paper;  then  spreading  the  fingers  of  his  right 
hand  as  much  as  he  can  through  the  length  of  the  quire,  turns 
over  his  opened  division  of  it  upon  his  right  hand  side  of  the 
heap. 

Drawing  and  plate  papers,  being  occasionally  used  by  the 
letter-press  printer,  it  is  proper  to  observe  that  a  different  pro- 
cess must  be  used  in  the  wetting.  These  papers  are  usually 
sent  in  from  the  Stationers  quite  flat;  that  is  not  folded  into 
quires  or  half  quires.  The  best  method  of  wetting  these  papers 
is  to  use  a  brush,  such  as  is  called  a  banister  brush;  and  instead 
of  dipping  the  paper  into  the  trough,  lay  it  on  the  paper  board 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  233 

by  the  side  of  tne  trough,  and  dipping  the  brush  into  the  water, 
give  it  a  gentle  shake  over  the  whole  surface  to  give  an  equal 
degree  of  moisture  to  all  parts;  and  continue  to  follow  up  the 
process  upon  the  same  principle  as  in  wetting  paper  after  the 
ordinary  mode,  as  before  described.  The  drawing-paper  being 
very  hard-sized  in  the  making,  will  require  the  brush,  and 
much  water,  three,  four,  and  sometimes  five  times  a  quire; 
while  the  plate-paper  will  take  as  little  water  as  it  is  possible  to 
give  it,  so  as  to  cover  it  all  over;  and  twice  a  quire  will  often 
be  too  much.  This  same  mode  must  also  be  adopted  in  wetting 
paper  of  extraordinary  dimensions. 

Having  wet  his  first  token,  he  doubles  down  a  corner  of  the 
upper  sheet  of  it  on  his  right  hand,  so  that  the  further  corner 
may  be  a  little  towards  the  left  hand  of  the  crease  in  the  middle 
of  the  heap,  and  that  the  other  corner  may  hang  out  on  the 
near  side  of  the  heap,  about  an  inch  and  a  half;  this  sheet  is 
called  the  token  sheet,  as  being  a  mark  for  the  pressman,  when 
he  is  at  work,  to  know  how  many  tokens  of  that  heap  are 
worked  off. 

Having  wet  the  whole  heap,  he  lays  a  wrapper,  or  waste 
sheet  of  paper  upon  it,  that  the  paper  board  may  not  soil  the 
last  sheet  of  the  heap ;  then,  three  or  four  times,  takes  up  as 
much  water  as  he  can  in  the  hollow  of  his  hand,  and  throws  it 
over  the  waste  sheet,  that  it  may  moisten  and  soak  downwards 
:mto  the  wet  part  of  the  last  division  of  the  quire,  after  which  he 
places  the  label  which  the  warehouseman  must  always  furnish 
for  each  heap,  and  upon  which  is  written,  in  legible  characters, 
the  title  of  the  work  and  the  date  of  wetting,  in  the  heap,  one 
half  hanging  out  so  as  to  be  easily  read. 

The  paper  being  thus  wetted,  he  sets  it  by  in  a  part  of  the 
room  appropriated  for  that  purpose,  and  lays  another  board 
upon  it;  and  in  the  middle  of  the  board  sets  about  a  half  a  hun- 
dred weight,  and  lets  it  stand  by  to  press,  commonly  till  the 
next  morning;  for  pressmen  generally  wet  their  paper  after 
they  have  left,  work  at  night.  All  wetted  paper  woald  be  better 
if  it  were  separated  and  turned  in  the  course  of  the  following 
morning,  and  pressed  for  ten  or  twenty  hours  in  a  standing 
press. 


234  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

But  the  wetting  of  paper  must,  in  all  cases,  depend  entirely 
upon  its  fabric :  and  since  the  printer  has  seldom,  when  em- 
ployed by  a  bookseller,  the  choice  of  the  paper,  it  will  require 
all  his  skill  and  patience  to  adapt  his  labors  to  the  materials 
upon  which  he  is  to  work.  The  paper  foi  fine  work  must  in- 
crease in  firmness  of  texture,  as  the  ink  is  increased  in  fineness 
and  tenacity.  To  attempt  doing  fine  work  upon  common  paper, 
is  but  throwing  away  time  and  expense.  A  paper  to  take  the 
best  ink  must  be  made  entirely  of  linen  rags,  and  not  bleached 
by  any  chemical  or  artificial  means.  A  fine  hand-made  paper, 
fabricated  a  sufficient  time  to  get  properly  hardened,  and  well 
and  equally  saturated  with  size  so  as  not  to  imbibe  more  water 
in  one  part  of  the  dip  than  in  another,  nor  resisting  the  water 
like  a  duck's  back,  is  what  we  have  found  most  suitable  for  fine 
printing.  The  paper  having  been  wetted  with  the  greatest  care 
as  to  equality  of  water,  should  be  pressed  for  twelve  hours,  and 
then  carefully  turned  by  each  three  or  four  sheets,  so  as  no  lift 
be  relaid  in  the  same  position  with  respect  to  the  adjoining  lift; 
at  the  same  time  every  fold  and  wrinkle  must  be  carefully  rub- 
bed out  by  the  action  of  the  hand,  so  that  nothing  but  a  flat  and 
even  surface  shall  remain;  the  heap  should  then  be  pressed  for 
about  twenty-four  hours  in  a  screw  press,  and  it  will  be  in 
good  order  for  working. 


THE  BLANKETS. 

THE  next  matter  of  importance  towards  obtaining  good  press 
work,  is  the  substance  which  is  fixed  in  the  tympans  to  inter- 
vene between  the  type  and  the  platen,  in  order,  when  the  power 
is  applied,  to  cause  an  impression  into  the  substance  of  the 
paper.  Whatever  is  used  for  this  purpose,  it  is  now  become 
technically  correct  to  denominate  the  blankets.  For  this  pui- 
pose  there  has  been  generally  used  a  kind  of  blanket,  manufac- 
tered  for  the  purpose,  of  a  more  even  fibre  than  ordinary 
blanketing,  free  from  knots,  and  having  a  very  fine  surface,  or 
pile;  and  to  vary  the  impression  as  different  kinds  of  work 
might  require,  very  thin,  or  Welsh  flannel,  Cassimeres,  or  fine 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  235 

broad-cloth  are  used.  These  are  varied  by  the  judgment  of  the 
master  or  pressman,  according  to  the  type,  paper,  ink,  &c.  with 
which  he  works:  thus  for  very  close  or  heavy  forms,  small 
type,  he  must  select  the  softest  woollen  blanket,  and  for  yet 
larger  type  and  more  open  work,  he  must  continue  the  change 
to  the  thinnest  blanket,  and  sometimes  even  to  two  or  three 
sheets  of  soft  paper.  Again,  a  discretion  will  be  required,  ac- 
cording to  the  state  or  wear  of  the  types — the  newer  the  letter 
and  sharper  the  ceriphs,  the  finer  may  be  the  work,  the  stronger 
the  ink,  and  the  harder  the  impression;  while,  on  the  contrary, 
in  order  to  make  type  which  has  been  worn,  appear  well  up  to 
paper,  additional  softness  must  be  given.  In  fact,  nothing  but 
observation,  experience,  and  good  mechanical  common  sense 
can  guide  the  judgment  of  the  pressman  in  this  most  material 
point  of  making  ready.  By  the  various  changes  and  combina- 
tions of  his  blankets,  adding  a  soft  to  a  hard,  or  a  hard  to  a  soft 
one;  reversing  them  in  regard  to  the  one  or  the  other  falling 
next  the  type;  adding  a  sheet  of  paper  between,  or  under,  or 
over,  he  must,  with  necessary  judgment  and  patience,  regulate 
his  pull  according  to  the  various  combinations  of  circumstances 
which  may  attend  his  work. 

We  have  been  thus  lengthy  upon  this  subject  in  order  to  im- 
press more  particularly  upon  the  minds  of  pressmen,  the  im- 
portance of  their  paying  particular  attention  to  this  material 
requisite  in  the  production  of  fine  printing;  being  fully  aware 
that  it  has  heretofore  been  regarded  as  a  matter  of  but  little  im- 
portance, and  having  been  altogether  too  much  neglected  by 
many  pressmen,  who  have  scarcely  deemed  it  necessary  to  look 
into  their  tympans  previous  to  going  to  work,  frequently  work- 
ing ordinary  forms  with  two  or  three  blankets,  when  one  or 
less  would  have  been  amply  sufficient. 


MAKING  READY  A  FORM. 

BEFORE  a  form  is  laid  on  the  press,  the  pressman  should  care- 
fully wipe  the  back  side  of  the  form  and  the  bed  perfectly  clean  ; 
for  if  any  hard  particle,  though  ever  so  small,  should  remain  oo 


236  TYPOGRAPH1A. 

it,  it  will  cause  that  part  of  the  form  to  rise,  and  not  only  make 
a  stronger  impression,  but  in  all  probability  injure  the  letters. 

The  form  should  be  laid  on  the  press,  if  an  octavo,  with  t'ne 
signature  page  to  the  left  hand,  or  nearest  the  platen;  if  a 
duodecimo,  or  its  combinations,  with  the  signature  at  the  right 
hand,  or  nearest  the  tympan.  The  form  should  be  laid  under 
the  centre  of  the  platen,  and  properly  quoined  up;  he  then  lays 
down  the  tympan,  wetting  it  if  necessary,  and  puts  in  his 
blankets,  which  should  be  well  rubbed  if  they  are  the  least 
hard.  It  was  customary,  formerly,  to  wet  the  tympans,  for  all 
works,  and  even  jobs  of  almost  every  description;  but  since  the 
introduction  of  fine  printing,  and  particularly  the  iron  presses, 
this  old  custom  is  well  nigh  banished,  excepting  for  extraordi- 
nary heavy  forms,  composed  with  old  letter,  which  of  course 
require  more  softness  to  bring  them  off.  After  putting  in  the 
inner  tympan  or  drawer,  he  fastens  it  with  the  hooks  for  that 
purpose,  which  serve  to  keep  it  from  springing  out.  Then 
lifting  up  the  tympan,  he  next  folds  a  sheet  of  the  paper  he  is 
about  to  work,  in  quarto,  and  lays  the  short  crease  over  the 
middle  of  the  grooves  of  the  short  cross,  if  it  lie  in  the  middle 
of  the  form,  for  in  twelves  it  does  not,  and  then  he  folds  the 
paper  accordingly  in  thirds,  the  long  crease  of  it  upon  the  mid- 
dle of  the  long  cross,  and  the  short  crease  over  the  grooves; 
having  laid  his  sheet  even  upon  the  form,  he  then  lays  down 
the  tympan,  and  pulls  gently  upon  the  sheet,  which,  with  the 
least  possible  damp,  will  cause  it  to  adhere  to  the  tympan; 
should  it  happen  to  have  been  laid  uneven,  it  is  much  better  to 
relay  it,  because  this  sheet  (which  is  denominated  the  tympan 
sheet,)  is  the  guide  by  which  the  whole  impression  of  the  form 
of  white  paper  is  worked.  He  next  selects  his  points,  for  large 
paper  short- shanked,  and  for  small,  long-shanked  points,  and 
screws  them  to  the  tympan;  if  an  octavo,  the  off  point  will  bear 
to  be  a  trifle  longer  than  the  near  one,  but  if  twelves,  they  must 
be  exactly  of  a  length,  or  placed  at  exact  distances  from  the 
edge  of  the  paper,  and  the  more  the  distance  between  the  point 
holes,  the  less  the  liability  of  the  registers  varying  by  the  stretch 
ing  of  the  holes.  By  placing  the  points  unequally  ir?  '-cta\os, 
&,c.  as  before  mentioned,  he  also  secures  himself  the  more  from 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  237 

a  turned  heap  when  he  works  the  reiteration.  When  a  press 
has  a  run  upon  the  same  work,  they  seldom  ever  remove  the 
quoins  on  the  offside  of  the  bed,  but  let  them  remain  as  guages 
for  the  following  forms;  for  by  thrusting  the  chase  close  against 
those  quoins,  the  register  is  almost,  if  not  quite  made,  provided 
the  chases  run  equal  as  to  size.  Having  fixed  on  his  points,  he 
then  lays  down  the  tympan,  within  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
of  the  form,  in  which  position  he  holds  it  at  the  upper  part  with 
his  left  hand,  while  he  sinks  his  body  till  he  can  see  between 
the  form  and  the  tympan,  and  with  the  ball  of  the  middle  finger 
of  his  right  hand,  presses  gently  upon  the  tympan  over  the  end 
of  each  point  successively,  to  ascertain  if  they  fall  in  the  middle 
of  the  grooves  of  the  short  cross;  if  not,  he  moves  them:  should 
the  sheet  have  been  taken  up  properly,  and  the  points  carefully 
fixed  according  to  it,  there  can  be  little  doubt  but  the  points  will 
fall  in  their  places.  Under  the  head  of  making  ready  the  form, 
are  comprehended  several  operations,  viz. — 1.  The  frisket  should 
be  covered  with  stout  paper,  in  the  manner  described  for  put- 
ting on  parchment,  being  careful  to  place  the  paper  on  the  in- 
side of  the  frame,  so  as  to  lie  close  to  the  tympan,  and  to  con- 
fine the  sheet  in  its  place  when  laid  on  for  printing;  when  the 
paste  is  sufficiently  dried,  the  frisket  should  be  put  on  the  tym- 
pan, and  after  inking  the  form,  an  impression  should  be  pulled 
upon  it,  the  frisket  is  then  taken  off  and  laid  on  a  board,  or  on 
his  bank,  and  the  pages  cut  round  with  a  sharp  knife  about  a 
Nonpareil  from  the  edge  of  the  margin  of  each  page,  it  is  then 
replaced  on  the  tympan;  after  which  it  would  be  advisable  to 
put  a  few  cords  across,  not  only  to  strengthen  the  bars  of  paper, 
but  also  to  keep  the  sheets  closer  to  the  tympan  than  would 
otherwise  have  been  the  case  if  the  paper  bars  had  been  left  to 
perform  this  office  alone;  at  times  it  is  necessary  to  work  with 
cords  only,  where  the  margin  is  too  small  to  admit  bars  of  paper. 

2.  He   next  examines  his  form,  to  see  that  it  is  properly 
locked  up  and  planed  down. 

3.  That  no  letters  or  spaces  lie  in  the  white  lines  of  the  form, 
nor  between  the  lines  in  leaded  matter;  which  may  happen  if 
the  compositors  have  made  any  corrections  since  the  form  was 
laid  on  the  press. 


238  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

4.  Should  there  be  any  wood  cuts  in  the  form,  they  must  be 
bfought  to  a  proper  height,  which  will  depend  much  upon  the 
judgment  of  the  pressman;  if  the  cuts  are  heavy,  they  must  be 
at  least  type  high,   but  should  they  be  light,  they  will  perhaps 
require  to  be  about  a  lead  or  more  lower  than  the  type,  and  the 
solid  parts,  if  any,  brought  up  by  overlays  nicely  cut  from  an 
impression,  with  a  pair  of  sharp  scissors;  should  any  particular 
part  then  be  too  high,  it  may  be  humored  a  little  by  cutting  it 
out  of  the  tympan  sheet;  but  should  the  whole  appear  too 
heavy,  an  underlay  must  be  taken  out,  and  if  necessary,  the  cut 
filed  or  scraped  away  at  the  bottom.     This  part  of  the  press- 
man's duty  has  heretofore  been  altogether  too  much  neglected, 
either  from  inattention,  or  a  want  of  knowledge  of  the  proper 
course  to  be  pursued,  much  to   the  detriment  of  the  engraver, 
whose  labor,  unassisted  by  the  printer,  is  entirely  thrown  away. 

5.  If  a  white  page  or  pages  happen  in  the  form,  and  he  uses 
a  newly  covered  frisket,  he  does  not  cut  out  that  page;  but  if  he 
works  with  an  old  frisket,  and  that  page  is  already  cut  out,  he 
pastes  on  a  piece  of  paper  to  cover  the  white  page  in  the  form, 
that  it  may  not  black;  he  then  puts  on  a  bearer,  to  keep  the 
adjoining  pages  from  having  too  hard  an  impression;   some 
pressmen   use  reglets,  others  have  furniture  cut  to  a  proper 
height,  and  a  third  class  adopt  cork,  which,  from  its  elasticity, 
in  many  cases   is  very  useful;  spring  bearers,  made  of  hard 
paper  rolled  up,  are  also  very  serviceable  to  guard  the  sides  and 
bottoms  of  light  and  open  pages,  when  there  is  an  inclination 
to  slur,  which,  with  some  presses,  cannot  be  prevented. 

6.  He  examines  whether  the  frisket  bites;  that  is,  whether  it 
keeps  off  the  impression  from  any  part  of  the  pages;  if  it  doe?, 
he  cuts  away  so  much,  and  about  a  Nonpareil  more,  off  the 
frisket  where  this  happens. 

7.  He  considers  whether  the  catch  of  the  frisket  stands  either 
too  forward  or  too  backward :  if  too  forward,  he  may  be  much 
delayed  by  its  falling  down,  and  if  too  backward,  after  h.e  has 
given   the  frisket  a  touch  to  bring  it  down,  it  will  be  too  long 
before  it  will  follow,  and  retard  the  progress  of  the  work,  and 
not  unfrequently  cause  the  sheet  to  slip  out  of  its  proper  place; 
he  therefore  places  the  catch  so  that  the  frisket  may  stand  a 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  239 

little  beyond  a  perpendicular  backwards,  that  with  a  near- 
guessed  strength  in  the  tossing  up,  it  may  just  stand,  and  not 
come  back. 

8.  He  fits  the  gallows  so  that  the  tympan  may  stand  as  much 
toward  an  upright  as  he  can;  because  it  is  the  sooner  let  down 
upon  the  form  and  lifted  up  again.     But  yet  he  will  not  place 
it  so  upright  as  to  prevent  the  white  sheets  of  the  paper  from 
lying  secure  on  the  tympan;  and  for  reiteration  sheets,  their 
laying  upon  the  points  secures  them. 

9.  Few  pressmen  will  set  the  range  of  the  paper  bank  to 
stand  at  right  angles  with  the  bed  of  the  press;  but  they  draw 
the  further  end  of  the  bank  so  that  the  near  side  may  make  an 
angle  of  about  seventy-five  degrees,  more  or  less,  with  the  near 
side  of  the  bed. 

10.  The  pressman  brings  his  heap,  and  sets  it  on  the  horse, 
on  the  near  end  of  the  paper  bank,  as  near  the  tympan  as  he 
can,  yet  not  to  touch  it,  and  places  an  end  of  the  heap  towards 
him.     He  then  takes  the  uppermost,  or  outside  sheet,  and  lays 
it  on  the  bank;  and  taking  three,  or  four,  or  five  quires  off  his 
heap,  he  shakes  them  at  each  end,  to  loosen  the  sheets,  that 
with  pressing  stick  close  together;  and  not  finding  them  loose 
enough,  he  shakes  them  long-ways  and  side-ways,  to  and  fro, 
till  he  finds  he  has  sufficiently  loosened  or  hollowed  the  heap. 
Then  with  the  nail  of  his  right  hand  thumb,  he  draws  or  slides 
forward  the  upper  sheet,  and  two  or  three  more  commonly  fol- 
low gradually  with  it,  over  the  hither  edge  of  the  heap,  to  pre- 
pare those  sheets  ready  for  laying  on  the  tympan. 

11.  Having  attended  to   the   foregoing  directions,   he   next 
proceeds  to  pull  a  revise  sheet,  which  must  be  sent  up  to  the 
Overseer  for  a  final  revision,  and*  that  he  may  discover  whether 
any  letters  have  dropped  out  of  the  form  in  putting  it  on  the 
press,  &,c. 

12.  While  the  sheet  is  undergoing  a  revision,  the  pressman 
proceeds  to  make  register,  (if  half  sheet-wise)  which  he  does 
by  pulling  a  waste  sheet,  and  turning  it,  (without  inking,  as 
the  sheets  may  afterwards  be  used  for  slip  sheets,)  being  par- 
ticular not  to  stretch  the  point  holes  in  the  least,  or  to  draw  the 
hand  along  the  sheet  in  leaving  it,  as  it  will  be  impossible  to 

21 


240  TYPOGRAPH1A. 

make  gooJ  register  while  these  particulars  are  neglected.  In 
making  register,  the  points  should  be  knocked  up  or  down  in 
such  a  direction  as.  would  bring  the  first  impression  under  the 
last,  only  knocking  the  point  half  the  distance  apparent  on  the 
sheet.  Should  we  be  unable  to  make  register  with  the  points,, 
the  difficulty  must  then  be  either  in  the  furniture,,  the  length  of 
the  pages,  or  what  is  too  frequently  the  case,  in  the  springing 
of  the  cross-bars,  from  being  locked  up  by  careless  and  indif- 
ferent compositors,  who  commence  at  one  quarter  of  the  form, 
locking  it  up  tightly,  and  so  going  round,  instead  of  gently  tap- 
ping it  at  opposite  sides  till  the  whole  is  secure.  In  locking  up 
a  form,  the  quoins  at  the  feet  should  be  gently  struck  first,  to 
force  up  the  pages  and  prevent  their  hanging;  but  in  unlock- 
ing, the  side  quoins  are  first  slackened,  otherwise,  should  the 
matter  be  leaded,  the  leads  are  very  liable  to  be  bent,  if  not 
broke,  by  the  foot  of  the  page  being  first  unlocked. 

In  making  register,  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  move 
the  forms,  particularly  in  twelves,  in  order  to  avoid  the  incon- 
venience of  moving  the  points,  or  in  some  cases  where  they 
cannot  be  moved  to  answer  the  purpose. 

But  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  compositor  has  not  made 
the  white  exactly  equal  between  all  the  sides  of  the  crosses;  in 
this  case,  altering  the  quoins  will  not  make  good  register;  the 
pressman  therefore  observes  which  side  has  too  much  or  too 
little  white,  and,  unlocking  the  form,  lakes  out  or  puts  in  such 
a  number  of  leads  or  reglets  as  he  thinks  will  make  good  regis- 
ter, which  he  tries  by  pulling  a  sheet,  and  if  it  be  necessary, 
alters  it  again,  till  he  has  pulled  a  sheet  with  good  register. 


PULLING. 

To  take  a  sheet  off  the  heap,  the  puller  places  his  body  almost 
straight  before  the  near  side  of  the  tympan;  but  nimbly  twists 
the  upper  part  of  his  body  a  little  backwards  towards  the  heap, 
the  better  to  see  that  he  takes  but  one  sheet  off,  which  he 
loosens  from  the  rest  of  the  heap  by  drawing  the  back  of  the 
nail  of  his  right  thumb  quickly  over  the  bottom  part  rf  the 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  241 

heap,  (but  in  the  reiteration,  care  should  be  observed  to  draw 
the  thumb  on  the  margin,  or  between  the  gutters,  that  the  sheet 
may  not  smear  or  set  off,)  and,  receiving  the  near  end  of  the 
sheet  with  his  left  hand  fingers  and  thumb,  catches  it  by  the 
further  edge  with  his  right  hand,  about  four  inches  from  the 
upper  corner  of  the  sheet,  and  brings  it  swiftly  to  the  tympan, 
and  having  the  sheet  thus  in  both  his  hands,  lays  the  further 
side  and  two  extreme  corners  of  the  sheet  down  even  upon  the 
further  side  and  extreme  further  corners  of  the  tympan  sheet; 
the  sheet  being  now  properly  laid  on,  he  supports  it  in  the  cen- 
tre by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  while  his  right  hand,  being 
disengaged,  is  removed  to  the  back  of  the  ear  of  the  frisket,  to 
bring  it  down  upon  the  tympan,  laying,  at  the  same  moment, 
the  tympan  on  the  form.  He  then,  with  his  left  hand,  grasps 
the  rounce,  and  with  a  moderate  strength  quickly  turns  it  in; 
after  pulling,  he  gives  a  quick  and  strong  pressure  upon  the 
rounce,  to  turn  it  back,  and  run  the  carriage  out  again:  as  soon 
as  he  has  given  this  pressure,  he  disengages  his  left  hand  from 
the  rounce,  and  claps  the  fingers  of  it  towards  the  bottom  of  the 
tympan,  to  assist  the  right  hand  in  lifting  it  up,  and  also  to  be 
ready  to  catch  the  bottom  of  the  sheet  when  the  frisket  rises, 
which  he  conveys  quick  and  gently  to  the  catch;  and  while  it 
is  going  up,  he  slips  the  thumb  of  his  left  hand  under  the  near 
lower  corner  of  the  sheet,  which,  with  the  assistance  of  his  two 
fore-fingers,  he  raises,  and  by  so  doing  allows  the  right  hand 
also  to  grasp  it  at  the  top,  in  the  same  manner,  which  lifts  the 
sheet  carefully  and  expeditiously  ofT  the  points,  and  nimbly 
twisting  about  his  body  towards  the  paper  bank,  carries  the 
sheet  over  the  heap  of  white  paper  to  the  bank,  and  lays  it 
down  upon  a  waste  sheet  or  wrapper,  put  there  for  that  pur- 
pose; but  while  it  is  coming  over  the  white  paper  heap,  though 
he  has  the  sheet  between  both  his  fore- fingers  and  thumbs,  yet 
he  holds  it  so  loosely,  that  it  may  move  between  them  as  on 
two  centres,  as  his  body  twists  about  from  the  side  of  the  tym- 
pan towards  the  side  of  the  paper  bank. 

Thus,  both  the  pressman's  hands  at  the  same  time  are  alter- 
nately engaged  in  different  operations;  for  while  his  right  hand 
is  employed  in  one  action,  his  left  is  busy  about  another;  and 


242  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

these  exercises  are  so  suddenly  varied,  that  they  seem  to  slide 
into  one  another's  position,  beginning  when  the  former  is  but 
half  performed. 

Having  thus  pulled  a  sheet,  and  laid  it  down,  he  turns  his 
body  towards  the  tympan  again,  and,  as  he  is  turning,  gives 
the  next  sheet  on  the  white  paper  heap  a  touch  with  the  back 
of  the  nail  of  his  right  thumb,  as  before,  to  draw  it  a  little  over 
the  hither  edge  of  the  heap,  and  lays  it  on  the  tympan,  &c.  as 
he  did  the  first ;  and  so  successively  every  sheet,  till  the  whole 
heap  of  white  paper  be  worked  off. 

As  he  comes  to  a  token  sheet,  he  undoubles  it,  and  smooths 
out  the  crease  with  the  back  of  the  nails  of  his  right  hand,  that 
the  face  of  the  letter  may  print  upon  smooth  paper.  And  being 
printed  off,  he  folds  it  again,  as  before,  for  a  token  sheet  when 
he  works  the  reiteration. 

Having  worked  off  the  white  paper  of  twelves,  he  places  his 
right  hand  under  the  heap,  and  his  left  hand  supporting  the 
end  near  him,  turns  it  over  on  the  horse,  with  the  printed  side 
downwards :  if  octavo,  he  places  his  left  hand  under  the  heap, 
supporting  the  outside  near  end  with  his  right  hand,  and  turns 
it  one  end  over  the  other;  all  turning  of  the  paper  for  reitera- 
tion is  regulated  by  this  principle,  and  called  by  the  pressmen 
twelve-ways,  or  octavo-ways.  In  performing  this  operation,  he 
takes  from  the  heap  so  much  at  once  as  he  can  well  govern, 
without  disordering  the  evenness  of  the  sides  of  the  paper,  viz. 
a  token  or  more,  and  lays  that  upon  the  horse;  then  takes 
another  lift,  and  so,  successively,  till  he  has  turned  the  whole. 

Having  turned  the  heap,  he  proceeds  to  work  it  off,  as  before 
described,  except  that  with  the  left  hand  he  guides  the  point 
holes  over  the  points,  moving  the  sheet  with  the  right  hand, 
more  or  less,  to  assist  him  in  so  doing.  The  token  sheets,  as 
he  meets  with  them,  he  does  not  fold  down  again,  as  he  did  the 
white  paper. 

When  within  a  quire  or  so  of  the  end  of  the  heap,  the  ware- 
houseman should  be  called,  whose  duty  it  is  to  count  the  paper> 
and  if  it  falls  short,  he  brings  the  pressman  the  number  of  dry 
sheets,  which  he  turns  into  the  heap  from  which  the  wet  sheets 
are  taken. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  243 

RULES  AND  REMEDIES  FOR  PRESSMEN. 

ABOUT  every  five  or  six  sheets  a  small  quantity  of  ink  should 
be  taken;  yet  this  will  be  subject  to  considerable  variation  from 
the  nature  of  the  individual  work,  and  quality  of  the  ink;  a 
form  of  large  type,  or  solid  matter,  will  require  the  taking  of 
ink  more  frequently,  and  a  light  form  of  small  type  less  fre- 
quently; during  the  intervals  in  which  the  roller  boy  is  not 
employed  in  brayering  out  or  taking  ink,  he  should  be  almost 
constantly  engaged  in  distributing  or  changing  his  rollers.  In 
taking  ink,  he  should  invariably  take  it  on  the  back  roller,  as  it 
will  the  sooner  be  conveyed  to  the  other  roller,  and  conse- 
quently save  time  in  distributing.  When,  through  carelessness, 
too  much  ink  has  been  taken,  it  should  be  removed  by  laying  a 
piece  of  clean  waste  paper  on  one  of  the  rollers,  and  distribut- 
ing them  till  the  ink  is  reduced  to  the  proper  quantity.  If  let- 
ters, quadrats,  or  furniture,  rise  up  and  black  the  paper,  they 
should  be  put  down  with  the  bodkin,  and  the  quarter  locked  up 
tighter.  If  any  letters  are  battered,  the  quarter  they  are  in  must 
be  unlocked,  and  perfect  ones  put  in  by  the  compositor.  When 
bearers  become  too  thin  by  long  working,  they  should  be  re- 
placed by  thicker  ones.  When  the  form  gets  out  of  register, 
which  will  often  happen  by  the  starting  of  the  quoins  which 
secure  the  chase,  it  must  be  immediately  put  in  again,  as  there 
can  scarcely  be  a  greater  defect  in  a  book,  than  a  want  of  uni- 
formity in  this  particular.  If  picks,  which  are  produced  by 
bits  of  paper,  composition,  or  film  of  ink  and  grease  or  filth, 
get  into  the  form,  they  are  removed  with  the  point  of  a  pin  or 
needle;  but  if  the  form  is  much  clogged  with  them,  it  should 
be  well  rubbed  over  with  clean  lie,  or  taken  off,  and  washed: 
in  either  case,  before  the  pressman  goes  on  again,  it  should  be 
made  perfectly  dry  by  pulling  several  waste  sheets  upon  it,  in 
order  to  suck  up  the  water  deposited  in  the  cavities  of  the  letter. 
The  pressman  should  habituate  himself  to  glance  his  eye  over 
every  sheet,  as  he  takes  it  off  the  tympan;  by  following  this 
plan,  he  will  be  enabled  not  only  to  observe  any  want  of  uni- 
formity in  the  color,  but  also  to  detect  many  imperfections 
which  might  otherwise  escape  unnoticed. 
21* 


244  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

In  order  to  make  perfect  uniformity  in  the  color,  the  roller 
boy  should  be  made  to  keep  his"  ink  well  brayered  out  with  the 
small  roller,  in  proper  quantities  for  the  work  in  hand,  and  also 
to  change  his  rollers  well  after  taking  ink,  and  at  other  times  ; 
the  rollers  are  changed  by  moving  the  roller  handle  slowly  to 
the  right  and  left,  while  the  crank  is  being  turned  briskly  with 
the  left  hand. 

Torn  or  strained  sheets  met  with  in  the  course  of  work,  are 
thrown  out  and  placed  under  the  bank.  Creases  and  wrinkles 
will  frequently  happen  in  the  sheets  through  careless  wetting 
of  the  paper,  and  which  escaped  the  pressman's  notice  in  turn-* 
ing;  these  should  be  carefully  removed  by  smoothing  them  out 
with  the  back  of  the  nails  of  the  right  hand. 

Slurring  and  mackling  arise  from  various  causes;  the  follow- 
ing, among  many  others,  are  the  causes  of,  and  remedies  for 
this  evil.  If  the  frame  of  the  tympan  rub  against  the  platen,  it 
will  inevitably  cause  a  slur  or  mackle.  This  can  easily  be 
remedied  by  moving  the  tympan  so  as  to  clear  the  platen.  The 
joints  or  hinges  of  the  tympans  should  be  kept  well  screwed  up, 
or  slurring  will  be  the  consequence.  The  thumb  piece  of  the 
frisket  being  so  long  as  to  cause  it  to  rub  against  the  cheek  of 
the  press,  always  produces  a  slur;  this  can  be  prevented  by 
filing  off  a  part  of  it.  Loose  tympans  will  at  all  times  slur  the 
work,  great  care  must  therefore  be  observed  in  drawing  them 
perfectly  tight.  The  paper  drying  at  the  edges  will  also  cause 
a  slur;  this  may  be  remedied  by  wetting  the  edges  frequently 
with  a  sponge. 

Independent  of  the  above  causes,  slurring  and  mackling  will 
sometimes  happen ;  it  will  be  better  in  this  case  to  paste  corks 
on  the  frisket,  or  to  tie  as  many  cords  as  possible  across  it,  to 
keep  the  sheet  close  to  the  tympan. 

In  rolling  the  form,  the  pressman  should  see  that  the  boy 
rolls  it  slowly,  or  the  rollers  will  be  apt  to  jump,  which  occa- 
sions a/n*ar;  to  prevent  the  rollers  from  jumping  or  bounding, 
various  experiments  have  been  tried,  as  the  most  successful  of 
which,  we  would  recommend  bridges  or  springs  made  of  thin 
steel,  to  reach  across  the  gutters ;  these  springs  should  taper  off 
at  the  ends,  and  have  an  oblong  hole  in  each  end,  through 


TYPOGRAPHIC.  245 

wmch  they  may  be  tacked  to  the  gutter  sticks.  In  very  open 
forms,  it  will  perhaps  be  necessary  to  put  bearers,  or  pieces  of 
reglet  where  the  blank  pages  occur  at  the  end  of  the  form,  to 
prevent  that  end  of  the  roller  from  falling  down  and  leaving  a 
friar  at  the  opposite  end.  Of  late  years  this  difficulty  has,  in  a 
great  measure,  been  obviated  by  imposing  the  form  in-  such  a 
manner,  as  in  most  cases,  to  bring  the  blank  pages  in  the  cen- 
tre. (See  pages  14,  15,  20,  and  21  of  the  impositions.)  This 
mode  should  always  be  adopted  for  title  pages  and  other  light 
matter,  as  great  advantages  must  arise  from  working  such 
pages  in  the  centre  of  the  form. 

Before  the  pressman  leaves  his  work,  he  covers  his  heap. 
He  first  turns  down  a  sheet  like  a  token  sheet,  where  he  leaves 
off,  then  puts  a  quantity  of  the  worked  off  sheets  on  it,  and  a 
paper  board  if  convenient.  Laying  the  blanket  on  the  heap, 
after  leaving  off  work,  is  a  bad  custom.  If  the  paper  be  rather 
dry,  it  will  be  better  to  put  wet  wrappers  on  it,  after  wetting 
the  edges  well. 

The  pressman  next  observes  whether  his  form  be  clean;  if 
so,  he  puts  a  sheet  of  waste  paper  between  the  tympan  and 
frisket,  and  lays  them  down  on  the  form;  if  it  be  dirty,  it  must 
bo  rubbed  over  with  clean  ley,  and  several  waste  sheets  pulled 
on  it  as  before  directed,  to  suck  the  dirty  ley  out  of  the  cavities 
of  the  letter.  On  his  return  to  work  in  the  morning,  should  the 
type  be  much  worn,  he  takes  care  to  wet  the  tympan.  If  there 
should  be  any  pages  in  the  form  particularly  open,  those  parts 
of  the  tympan  where  they  fall  must  not  be  wetted. 


THE  LEY  TROUGH. 

THE  form  being  worked  off,  it  becomes  the  pressman's  duty  to 
wash  it  clean  and  free  from  every  particle  of  ink,  not  only  for 
the  cleanly  working  and  well  standing  of  the  letter  in  the  sub- 
sequent composing,  but  to  save  his  own  time  in  making  ready 
when  the  same  letter  gets  to  press  again;  for  if  a  pressman  is 
at  all  remiss  in  this  duty,  he  will  perhaps  at  last  be  obliged  to 


246  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

do  it,  and  wait  the  drying  of  the  form,  before  he  can  go  on  with 
his  work  in  a  fit  and  proper  manner.  Many  an  hour  is  lost 
from  a  pressman  not  bestowing  a  minute  or  two  in  thoroughly 
cleansing  and  rinsing  his  form. 

For  this  purpose,  every  printing  office  is  provided  with  a  ley 
trough,  suspended  on  a  cross  frame,  and  swinging  by  iron  ears 
fixed  something  out  of  the  precise  centre,  so  as  the  gravity  of 
the  trough  will  cause  it  to  fall  in  a  slanting  position  forward. 
This  trough  is  lined  with  lead,  the  top  front  edge  being  guarded 
from  the  pitching  of  the  forms  by  a  plate  of  iron.  The  form 
having  been  placed  in  the  trough  on  its  side,  he  takes  hold  of 
the  rim  of  the  chase  by  the  hook,  of  instrument  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  laying  it  gently  down,  pours  the  ley  upon  it,  and 
sluices  it  by  swinging  the  trough  on  its  pivots,  two  or  three 
times  to  and  fro,  then  taking  the  ley-brush,  he  applies  it  to  the 
whole  form,  type,  furniture,  and  chase;  the  ley  is  then  let  out 
into  a  receptacle  for  that  purpose,  and  the  form  well  rinsed  with 
clean  water,  by  swinging  the  trough  as  before;  the  form  is 
then  lifted  out,  and  consigned  to  the  care  of  the  compositor. 

The  ley  is  made  of  pot  or  pearl-ash.  A  large  earthen  jar  is 
usually  chosen  for  the  purpose;  a  sufficient  quantity  of  pearl- 
ash  is  added  to  the  water  to  make  it  bite  the  tongue  sharply  in 
tasting. 

The  ley  brush  is  made  large,  the  hairs  close,  fine,  and  long, 
in  order  not  to  injure  the  type,  while  sufficient  force  is  applied 
to  search  every  interstice  in  the  letter,  where  the  ink  can  have 
insinuated  itself. 


ON  FINE  PRINTING. 

IT  is  to  be  regretted,  that  uncontrolable  causes  preclude  us  from 
partaking  of  those  benefits,  which  are  so  essentially  necessary 
in  the  production  of  Fine  Printing;  we  allude  to  the  very 
changeable  nature  of  this  climate,  the  temperature  of  which  is 
so  variable,  that  it  acts  powerfully  upon  the  oil  of  which  our 
ink  is  composed,  disposing  it  at  one  hour  to  spread  equally  over 
the  rollers,  and  at  another  rendering  it  so  glutinous  and  stiff,  as 


TYPOGRAPHY  247 

to  tear  the  surface  of  the  paper,  and  thereby  baffle  the  utmost 
efforts  of  the  pressman ;  even  though  he  raise  the  temperature 
to  summer  heat,  if  the  frost  be  intense,  it  will  be  of  little  avail : 
it  has  been  proved  that  heat  will  not  entirely  counteract  the 
effects  of  a  freezing  atmosphere  upon  some  kinds  of  printing 
ink.  It  is  not  the  ink  alone  that  is  thus  affected,  but  also  the 
rollers,  which  are  so  out  of  order  at  certain  times,  that  it  is 
utterly  impossible  for  the  pressman  to  produce  even  passable 
common  work,  much  less  that  of  a  superior  kind:  of  these 
evils  the  public  are  little  aware,  but  they  are  severely  felt  both 
by  the  employer  and  the  men.  But  there  are  other  obstacles 
against  the  production  of  Fine  Printing,  or  indeed  work  of  any 
description;  we  allude  to  the  introduction  of  cotton  rags,  and 
likewise  ground  plaster  of  Paris  (called  gypsum,)  into  the 
manufacture  of  fine  and  other  papers,  also  the  application  of 
the  oxygenated  muriatic  acid  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
despatch  and  delicacy  of  color,  and  thereby  producing  a  good 
paper  in  appearance,  from  an  inferior  staple.  Nothing  can  be 
more  perplexing  to  a  printer,  nor  more  detrimental  to  his 
labors,  than  what  is  termed  bleached  paper:  for  although  it 
may  be  thick,  and  seem  strong  in  the  ream,  no  sooner  does  the 
water  penetrate  through  it,  than  it  loses  its  adhesive  quality, 
and  becomes  so  loose  and  soft,  as  scarcely  to  bear  handling, 
and  in  working  sinks  down  into  the  letter,  leaving  a  portion  of 
its  substance  on  the  form  after  the  impression,  until  it  so  clogs 
the  type,  that  the  work  is  often  rendered  scarcely  legible.  Hence 
it  is  that  works  printed  in  this  country  are  less  valued  than 
those  from  the  English  press,  whose  works  are  printed  on 
paper  of  a  fine  fabric  made  mostly  of  linen  rags,  and  sufficiently 
strong  to  bear  a  fine  ink;  while  in  this  country  the  pressman  is 
obliged  to  accommodate  the  ink  to  the  softness  of  his  paper, 
which  will  seldom  bear  any  thing  above  the  lowest  priced 
book  ink. 

The  printers  who  have  paid  most  attention  to  fine  printing, 
have  endeavored  to  produce  that  delicacy  and  sharpness  of  ap- 
pearance on  paper  which  is  peculiar  to  the  copper-plate  work; 
but  though  such  an  effect  may  be  very  nearly  approximated,  it 
can  never  be  perfectly  attained,  the  impression  being,  as  I  have 


248  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

before  remarked,  accomplished  by  such  completely  different 
means.  In  seeking,  therefore,  after  that  which  peculiarly  be- 
longs to  another  art,  we  are  liable  to  a  neglect  of  those  excel- 
lencies which  exclusively  characterize  our  own;  nor  needs  the 
mortification  be  very  great  that  we  cannot  produce  close  imita- 
tion of  copper-plate  printing,  when  we  see  the  difficult  and 
abortive  attempts  of  the  copper-plate  printer  and  engraver  to 
imitate  us;  and  when  we  consider  how  much  more  than  the 
olher,  our  art  is  capable  of  performing.  With  proper  materiaJs, 
properly  employed,  the  impressions  from  letter-press  exhibit 
peculiar  fine  relief  and  outline,  which,  in  many  respects,  must 
be  allowed  to  excel  in  beauty,  even  the  finest  productions  of 
copper-plate. 

Those  who  have  had  opportunities  of  inspecting  the  early 
productions  of  the  press,  will  be  convinced  that  the  art  became 
retrograde  in  the  course  of  time;  for  there  are  yet  in  existence 
works  of  the  fifteenth  and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  centuries, 
which,  whether  examined  with  regard  to  case  or  press,  will 
bear  a  near  comparison  with  any  that  are  now  produced.  It 
has  been  previously  remarked  that  printing,  immediately  on  its 
invention,  made  singularly  rapid  advances  to  perfection,  which 
may  be  easily  accounted  for  by  the  facilities  it  afforded  to  the 
purposes  of  society,  and  more  especially  to  the  cause  of  litera- 
ture; and  the  unexampled  patronage  it  thus  obtained,  as  being 
one  of  the  most  honorable  vestibules  to  human  glory. 

The  improvements  which  have  taken  place  in  all  the  arts 
connected  with  letter-press  printing,  have  acted,  no  doubt, 
powerfully  in  stimulating  the  printers  of  this  country  to  that 
extraordinary  exertion  by  which  such  fine  specimens  of  typo- 
graphic beauty  are  now  so  frequently  produced.  As  engraving 
on  copper  and  on  wood  progressively  improved,  it  became 
necessary  that  the  typography  which  accompanied  them  should 
not,  by  a  coarse  and  common  appearance,  serve  but  to  disgrace 
that  which  it  should  rival,  and  abridge  the  gratification  which 
might  be  reasonably  expected  from  a  union  of  the  arts. 

Although  the  powers  of  wood  engraving  are  limited,  yet,  as 
an  art  most  intimately  connected  with  our  own,  its  importance 
is  worthy  of  being  held  in  the  highest  estimation;  and  were  we 


TYPOGRAPHIC.  249 

not  to  attempt  to  force  it  beyond  its  capabilities,  its  advantages 
would  be  more  esteemed.  In  consequence  of  several  first-rate 
artists  having  put  their  genius  to  the  stretch,  in  order  that  their 
works  might  vie  with  copper-plate,  a  false  taste  has  been  pro- 
duced. It  is  true  that  some  have  sent  out  very  beautiful  speci- 
mens, aiTording  a  vast  variety ;  but  how  curious  soever  these 
productions  may  appear,  yet,  on  a  comparison  with  impres- 
sions from  copper,  they  will  be  found  different  things.  The  two 
species  of  printing  has  each  its  peculiar  feature,  which  it  is  a 
vain  attempt  for  the  other  to  strive  to  equal.  The  deep,  soft, 
regular  black  ground  which  can  be  given  to  a  broad  surface  by 
completely  covering  it  with  fine  ink,  is  a  property  of  letter- 
press printing  which  the  copper-plate  can  never  be  able  to  ac- 
complish 5  and  there  is  a  receding  in  perspective,  and  a  general 
sharpness  of  outline  belonging  entirely  to  the  latter,  which  it  is 
impossible  for  the  former  fully  to  attain.  As  it  is  a  natural  con- 
sequence of  the  different  methods  of  engraving  and  working 
off,  it  is  a  species  of  dissimilarity  that  can  never  be  entirely  pre- 
vented. In  speaking  upon  this  subject,  the  author  of  a  Printer's 
Grammar,  says :  "We  are  as  much  disappointed  in  examining 
a  wood-engraving,  in  hopes  of  finding  the  softness  of  flesh  and 
delicacy  of  skin  which  is  produced  by  an  artist  on  copper,  as 
we  are  disappointed  in  not  meeting  in  copper  with  that  broad, 
deep  shade,  and  strength  of  contrast,  which  the  engraver  on 
wood  may  always  exhibit."  Now  with  regard  to  the  great  de- 
fect of  wood  engravings  in  general  thus  spoken  of,  it  is  pre- 
sumed that  a  considerable  advance  has  been  made  towards 
perfection  by  many  artists. 

No  kind  of  engraving  is  better  calculated  than  that  of  which 
we  are  here  speaking,  to  preserve  the  real  outline  and  propor- 
tions of  the  designer.  Indeed,  this  will  be  more  easily  credited 
when  it  is  stated  that  he  generally  makes  the  drawing  with 
pencil  on  the  block;  and  the  duty  of  the  engraver  is  to  leave 
those  lines  standing,  by  cutting  away  the  interstices  with  the 
greatest  exactness  possible.  Thus,  as  the  most  unfinished  etch- 
ings on  copper  of  the  ancient  masters  are  more  valuable  than 
any  imitations  of  them  by  a  second  hand,  so  are  the  powers  of 
the  engraver  on  wood  preferable  for  giving,  as  far  as  drawings 


250  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

and  proportions  are  concerned,  a  faithful  transcript  of  the  ori- 
ginal design.  The  great  point,  therefore,  seems  to  be,  to  con- 
sider properly  what  is  the  real  province  of  the  art,  so  that 
expectation  may  not  be  raised  from  it,  which,  from  its  nature, 
cannot  be  gratified;  and  the  art  and  the  artist  be  unjustly  de- 
preciated in  consequence  of  a  disappointment  which  it  is  beyond 
the  possibilities  of  either  to  prevent. 

The  difficulties  attending  the  printing  of  wood  engravings, 
are  such  as  to  require  the  greatest  care  and  attention  in  the 
printer,  otherwise  all  the  labor  previously  bestowed  by  the  de- 
signer and  engraver  will  prove  abortive:  the  printer  of  fine 
wood  engravings  should  have  some  knowledge  of  light  and 
shade,  without  which  he  must  of  necessity  find  himself  at  a 
loss  in  preparing  his  subjects  for  the  press,  however  great  his 
skill  may  be  in  other  respects;  for  it  is  from  the  nice  touches 
alone  that  the  beauty  and  effect  of  the  engravings  are  brought 
out;  of  these  difficulties  the  public  are  not  aware,  otherwise 
they  would  more  highly  prize  works  of  Art  on  wood,  than 
they  have  hitherto  done. 

A  difference  of  opinion  exists  respecting  the  color  of  printing 
ink;  some  admire  the  glaring  effect  of  a  dark  black,  while 
others  prefer  the  softened  richness  and  warmth  of  a  deep  mel- 
low tone,  which  is  always  pleasing  to  behold,  without  in  the 
least  being  fatiguing  to  the  sight.  The  printer  must  exercise 
his  judgment  respecting  the  color  and  quality  of  the  ink. 

With  respect  to  the  Press  nothing  need  be  advanced;  in  sev- 
eral of  them,  every  requisite  for  Pine  Printing  is  attained. 

The  paper  to  be  wet  in  such  a  manner'  as  to  retain  its  firm- 
ness, yet  to  be  sufficiently  soft  to  apply  closely  to  the  surface 
of  the  letter,  and  take  up  all  the  ink;  if  too  wet,  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  produce  a  clear  or  black  impression. 

The  rollers,  on  which  so  much  depend,  ought  to  be  particularly 
attended  to.  (For  further  directions,  see  subsequent  Chapter.) 

The  tympans  should  always  be  kept  in  a  state  of  tension,  by 
changing  or  drying  the  blanket,  and  removing  the  slip  sheets, 
as  they  become  damp. 

The  blankets  must  be  of  fine  broad  cloth,  or  kerseymere,  and 
only  one  to  be  used. 


TYPOGRAPHIC.  251 

When  printing  large  letter,  the  surface  of  which  requires  to 
be  well  filled  with  ink,  a  sheet  of  tissue  paper,  or  common 
paper  damped,  should  be  laid  between  every  impression,  to 
prevent  the  sheets  from  setting  off  on  the  back  of  each  other. 

Different  opinions  exist  respecting  what  constitutes  Fine 
Printing;  some  imagine,  if  they  make  their  pages  sufficiently 
black,  that  the  end  is  answered ;  others,  if  they  are  pale  and 
clear;  so  that  each  has  a  style  peculiar  to  himself:  therefore 
persons  contend  on  this  head,  as  though  they  were  criticising  a 
painting  or  an  engraving. 


PRINTING  ENGRAVINGS  ON  WOOD. 

HAVING  previously  alluded  to  this  subject  in  our  articles  on  Fine 
Printing  and  Making  Ready  a  Form,  it  will  only  be  necessary 
for  us  here  to  introduce  such  practical  directions,  as  are  indis- 
pensable in  obtaining  superior  impressions  from  engravings  on 
wood, 

Where  a  single  block  is  to  be  worked  in  the  centre  of  a  large 
press,  it  should  be  imposed  in  a  small  job  chase,  and  this  chase 
again  imposed  in  a  larger  one,  to  prevent  the  springing  of  the 
furniture.  Bearers,  letter-high,  placed  round  the  block,  serve 
to  equalize  the  impression,  and  protect  the  edges  from  the 
severity  of  the  pull;  they  also  render  the  subject  more  manage- 
able, by  enabling  the  pressman  to  add  to,  or  diminish  the  pres- 
sure on  particular  parts,  so  as  to  produce  the  desired  effect. 
The  first  pulls  made  after  the  block  has  been  laid  on  the  press, 
require  a  great  deal  of  care,  lest  by  too  hard  a  pull,  the  delicate 
lines  of  the  engraving  should  be  crushed;  these  remarks  are 
equally  applicable  to  the  printing  of  cards  and  other  light  forms. 

The  impression  in  an  engraving  on  wood  should  not  be  uni- 
formly equal;  if  it  be,  some  parts  will  be  too  hard  and  black, 
and  other  parts  have  neither  pressure  nor  color  enough,  with 
obscurity  and  roughness,  and  without  any  of  the  mildness  of 
the  middle  tint,  on  which  the  eye  seeks  to  repose  after  viewing 
the  strong  lights  and  deep  shades. 

22 


252  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

To  produce  the  desired  effect,,  the  pressman  pulls  a  few  im- 
pressions on  soiled  or  damaged  India  paper,,  out  of  which  he 
can  cut  overlays  to  the  precise  shape  and  size  that  are  wanted, 
wnich  he  does  with  a  penknife  and  a  pair  of  small  scissors, 
scraping  the  edges  of  the  overlay  in  many  cases,  to  cause  the 
additional  pressure  to  blend  with  the  surrounding  parts.  The 
overlays  being  nicely  cut,  he  lays  them  on  the  engraving  pre- 
cisely where  he  wishes  them,  and  having  slightly  pasted  that 
part  of  the  tympan  sheet,  puts  the  tympan  slowly  down,  and 
presses  with  his  hand  over  the  block  sufficiently  hard  to  cause 
the  overlays  to  adhere  to  the  tympan;  this  he  repeats  till  his 
dark  shades  are  sufficiently  strong,  and  should  the  light  parts 
then  be  too  heavy,  he  proceeds  to  cut  them  out  of  the  tympan 
sheet,  and  the  sheets  in  the  tympan  if  necessary ;  for  in  the 
printing  of  highly  finished  wood  cuts,  blankets  should  never  be 
used,  a  couple  of  sheets  of  fine  smooth  paper  being  sufficient. 

The  pressman  will  find  it  an  advantage  to  have  a  good  im- 
pression from  the  engraver  before  him  as  a  pattern,  and  then 
arrange  the  overlays,  &,c.  until  he  produces  a  fac  simile  in 
effect;  but  it  would  be  still  better  for  him,  could  he  obtain  the 
assistance  of  the  artist  at  the  press  side. 

It  is  indispensably  necessary  in  the  production  of  fine  print- 
ing, of  whatever  kind,  that  the  workman  should  be  supplied 
with  the  finest  ink,  and  a  smooth  hard  paper,  an.d  that  his 
rollers  or  balls,  the  latter  being  preferable  for  wood  engravings, 
should  be  in  the  best  order. 

A  fine  engraving  on  wood  should  always  be  washed  with 
Spirits  of  Wine,  and  when  out  of  use  should  invariably  be  kept 
with  its  face  downward  in  a  cool  place.  If  an  engraving  warp, 
it  may  be  straightened  by  laying  the  concave  side  on  a  few 
sheets  of  damp  paper  for  a  short  time. 


ORNAMENTAL  PRINTING. 

UNPER  this  general  head,  we  will  attempt  to  describe  thr 
various  kinds  of  Ornamental  Printing  which  have  sprung  into 
existence,  as  it  were,  within  the  last  twenty  years;  and  from 
our  having  been  almost  exclusively  engaged  in  that  branch  of 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  253 

the  art  during  the  greater  portion  of  that  period,  it  will  no  doubt 
be  expected  of  us  to  explain,  for  the  benefit  of  the  uninitiated, 
the  result  of  our  experience. 

CARD  PRINTING  has,  perhaps,  since  the  introduction  of  Ena- 
melled or  Polished  Cards,  made  more  rapid  strides  towards 
perfection  than  any  other  branch  of  the  art;  the  fine  absorbing 
quality  of  the  Enamel,  under  proper  management,  producing 
the  most  beautiful  results,  in  many  cases  scarcely  discernible 
from  copper-plate.  A  card,  to  be  well  printed,  requires  the 
same  treatment  as  a  wood  engraving,  (see  article  on  that  sub- 
ject) at  least  so  far  as  the  making  ready  is  concerned,  and  also 
m  being  worked  without  blankets,  and  with  the  finest  ink. 
Having  made  a  light  impression  on  our  tympan  sheet,  we 
place  our  pins  so  as  to  bring  the  impression  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible in  the  centre  of  the  card,  one  pin  at  the  lower  side,  and 
two  at  the  off  side,  taking  care  that  the  head  of  the  pin  does  not 
come  in  contact  with  the  types.  The  pull  should  be  exceed- 
ingly light  until  properly  regulated,  having  at  no  time  more 
than  is  actually  necessary  to  bring  up  the  face  of  the  type. 
Composition  Balls  should  be  used  for  all  small  forms  on  the 
ordinary  hand  presses,  where  fine  printing  is  required.  (See 
Balls.)  The  printing  of  Cards  has,  however,  been  carried  to 
such  an  extent  of  late,  that  they  are  now  printed  on  small  card 
machines  at  the  rate  of  one,  two,  and  even  three  thousand  per 
hour ;  we  have  two  of  these  machines  in  use,  one  capable  of 
printing  one  thousand,  and  the  other  three  thousand  per  hour. 
All  prepared  cards  must  be  printed  without  wetting,  and  it  is 
now  very  common  to  print  all  kinds  dry. 

GOLD  PRINTING,  like  most  other  novelties,  has  had  its  day, 
but  is  now  more  sparingly  used ;  the  process,  even  now,  is  not 
generally  known  by  the  profession,  although  within  the  power 
of  all.  The  types  are  composed,  and  made  ready  at  the  press  in 
the  usual  manner.  A  pot  of  gold  size  is  then  procured  from 
the  Ink  maker,  or  Printers'  Warehouse,  with  which  the  form 
is  inked  in  the  ordinary  manner,  and  the  impression  taken  upon 
the  paper.  The  book  of  Leaf  Gold  having  been  previously  cut, 
if  for  a  large  job,  by  merely  taking  off  the  back,  if  for  a  small 
one,  by  cutting  it  into  pieces  the  size  of  the  printed  impression, 


254  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

which  is  done  by  pressing  a  straight  edge  across  it,  and  cutting 
it  through  with  the  point  of  a  sharp  penknife,,  we  proceed  to 
laying  on  the  gold  in  the  following  manner :  we  slightly  wet 
the  end  of  the  fore  finger  of  our  right  hand,  and  having  placed 
the  thumb  of  that  hand  on  the  pile  of  gold,  we  raise  the  edge 
of  the  paper  with  the  fore  finger  sufficiently  to  dampen  it  with 
the  moisture  of  that  finger,  then  pressing  the  moistened  edge 
of  the  paper  on  the  gold,  it  will  adhere  sufficiently  to  enable  us 
to  lift  gold  and  paper  together,  and  place  it  on  the  impression, 
and  so  we  proceed  until  it  is  entirely  covered;  we  then  gently 
pat  the  gold  with  the  balls  of  the  fingers,  or  any  soft  pliable 
substance,  until  it  is  set,  when  with  a  very  soft  hat  brush,  we 
brush  off  the  superfluous  gold,  leaving  a  clear  and  beautiful  im- 
pression of  the  subject  in  hand.  The  sharpness  of  the  print 
will  vary  with  the  judgment  of  the  printer  in  the  quantity  of 
sizing  applied  to  the  type;  for  if  the  press- work  be  bad,  the 
print  will  be  bad  also. 

BRONZE  PRINTING  is  more  extensively  used  than  gold  print- 
ing, being  attended  usually  with  less  than  half  the  expense  in 
the  cost  of  the  material ;  the  method  of  printing  is  the  same, 
except  that  instead  of  laying  on  the  gold  leaf,  the  impression  is 
rubbed  over  with  the  bronze,  by  dipping  a  small  block  covered 
with  a  short  fine  fur  into  the  powder,  and  brushing  off  the 
superfluous  bronze  with  a  soft  brush,  as  in  gold  printing. 
Bronze  can  be  procured  of  various  colors,  and  when  laid  on 
with  judgment,  the  effect  ic  beautiful.  The  palest  bronze  is  best. 

XYLOGRAPHIC  PRINTING,  signifies  literally,  printing  from 
wooden  blocks,  but  it  is  commonly  applied  to  a  species  of  Or- 
namental Bordering  cut  in  type  metal,  the  printing  of  which  is 
from  the  surface,  usually  in  colored  inks.  In  1827  we  discovered 
a  mode,  which  is  practised  to  some  extent,  by  which  two  co- 
lors can  be  printed  at  one  impression ;  this  is  done  by  having 
two  plates,  the  inner  one  blocked  in  the  usual  manner,  the  outer 
one  moveable,  and  made  to  fit  over  it,  resting  on  the  same  block. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  255 

PRINTING  IN  COLORS. 

THE  art  of  printing  in  colors  has  heretofore  been  almost  en- 
tirely neglected  in.  this  country;  at  least  as  far  as  relates  to  the 
embellishing  works  of  ordinary  excellence  with  vignettes,  capi- 
tals, tail-pieces,  and  other  devices  of  fancy,  in  beautiful  tints, 
in  the  manner  of  the  early  typographers.  This  may  very  easily 
be  accounted  for.  To  print  in  two  colors  occupies  more  than 
twice  the  time  necessary  to  print  in  one;  and  it  also  requires 
more  skill  and  ingenuity.  These,  unfortunately,  must  be  paid 
for;  and  this  pecuniary  consideration  is  sufficient  to  banish 
from  our  pages  this  lovely  art.  So  did  not  our  forefathers; 
they  took  pride  in  choosing  the  most  tasteful  designs,  the  most 
harmonious  colors,  to  illuminate  their  productions,  and  beguile 
the  reader  into  study  by  the  illusive  charms  of  gold,  and  blue, 
and  crimson.  Fortunately,  either  time  was  of  little  value,  or 
the  exclusive  possession  of  the  market  enabled  them  to  demand 
remunerating  prices  for  the  time  thus  well  bestowed;  but  in  the 
bustle  and  competition  of  our  more  mercantile  days,  time  is 
money,  and  blue  and  gold,  scarlet  and  green,  give  way  to  the 
equally  useful  but  infinitely  less  beautiful  uniformity  of  unre- 
deemed black.  In  this  article  we  propose  to  give,  only  the 
method  of  printing  in  colors,  as  now  in  general  use,  having 
under  the  head  of  Ornamental  Printing,  adverted  to  a  new 
method  which  we  have  recently  invented,  called  Polychromatic 
Printing,  for  further  particulars  in  relation  to  which,  we  refer 
the  reader  to  that  article.  The  following  remarks  relate  to  the 
printing  of  red  and  black,  the  same  process  being  applicable  to 
all  other  colors. 

When  red  and  black  are  to  be  printed  on  the  same  sheet,  the 
form  is  made  ready  in  the  usual  way,  and  a  line  traced  all 
round  the  outside  of  the  chase  on  the  press  with  chalk,  or  any 
thing  that  will  accurately  show  the  exact  situation  in  which  the 
form  must  be  placed  after  it  has  been  taken  off  the  press.  The 
pressman  then  pulls  a  sheet  in  order  to  get  those  words  or  lines 
marked,  which  are  to  be  worked  red;  while  this  is  doing,  he 
washes  the  form  thoroughly,  as  the  least  dirt  remaining  on  it 
will  destroy  the  beauty  of  the  red.  The  form  is  then  laid  with 


256  TYPOGRAPHY 

its  face  downwards  on  a  letter-board  covered  with  the  press- 
blankets.  Those  words  marked  to  be  red  are  then  forced  down, 
(which  the  soft  and  spongy  nature  of  the  blankets  readily  admit 
of,)  and  Nonpareil  reglets  nicely  fitted  into  the  vacancies,  which 
raise  the  red  lines  and  words  all  of  an  equal  distance  from  the 
other  matter.  A  sheet  of  paper  is  then  pasted  on  the  form, 
which  keeps  the  Nonpareil  underlays  in  their  proper  places. 
The  form  is  again  laid  on  the  press,  observing  the  utmost  care 
in  placing  it  agreeable  to  the  marks  before  made  on  the  press. 

It  must  then  be  made  perfectly  fast  to  the  corner  irons,  as  it 
is  highly  important  that  it  remain  firm  and  immoveable  during 
its  stay  on  the  press.  The  frisket  (which  is  covered  with  strong 
paper)  is  then  put  on,  the  form  rolled  over  with  the  red  ink, 
and  an  impression  made  on  it.  The  red  words  are  then  cut  out 
with  a  sharp  pointed  penknife,  with  so  much  nicety  as  not  to 
admit  the  smallest  soil  on  the  paper  from  the  other  matter. 

The  red  being  finished,  and  the  form  washed,  the  compositor 
unlocks  it,  (which  is  best  done  on  the  imposing  stone,  as  the 
pressman  can  easily  lay  it  agreeable  to  the  marks  made  on  the 
press,)  and  draws  out  the  red  lines,  and  fills  up  the  space  with 
quadrats.  When  this  is  done,  the  pressman  cuts  out  the  frisket 
for  the  black.  An  extra  pair  of  points  are  used  to  prevent  the 
black  from  falling  on  the  red,  which  is  termed  riding.  When  a 
great  number  is  to  be  printed,  two  forms  are  generally  used, 
one  for  the  red,  and  another  for  the  black,  or  as  many  forms  as 
there  are  colors  to  be  printed.  There  is  another  method  of 
placing  the  underlays,  which'  is  adopted  for  broadsides,  &c. 
with  large  letter,  and  with  perhaps  only  two  or  three  lines  of 
red  in  them.  The  red  lines  are  taken  out  on  the  press,  and  the 
underlays  put  in  with  a  bodkin,  upon  which  these  lines  are 
placed,  and  the  frisket  cut  out  as  before  mentioned. 

The  custom  of  printing  broadsides,  &c.  with  various  colors, 
having  become  so  much  into  general  use,  has  induced  most 
of  our  ink  makers  to  turn  their  attention  to  the  manufacture 
of  colored  inks;  consequently  the  printer  can  now  be  supplied 
with  that  article  without  the  delay  and  labor  of  making.  We 
give  the  following  particulars,  however,  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  wish  to  prepare  their  own  colors 


TYPOGRAPHIC.  257 

Varnish  is  the  common  menstruum  adopted  for  all  colors  in 
printing  Red  is  the  color  generally  used  with  black.  Trieste, 
or  English  Vermillion,  with  a  small  portion  of  lake,  produces  a 
beautiful  red,  which  should  be  well  ground  with  a  muller  on  a 
marble  slab,  till  it  be  perfectly  smooth.  If  it  be  in  the  smallest 
degree  gritty,  it  clogs  the  form,  and  consequently  produces  a 
thick  and  imperfect  impression;  no  pains  should  therefore  be 
spared  to  render  it  perfectly  smooth;  it  may  then  be  made  to 
work  as  clear  and  free  from  picks  as  black.  A  cheaper  red,  but 
not  so  brilliant,  may  be  prepared  with  orange  mineral,  lose 
pink,  and  red  lead.  The  Prussian  blue  makes  also  an  excellent 
color,  and  will  require  a  good  deal  of  time  and  labor  to  make  it 
perfectly  smooth.  It  is  also  ground  with  the  best  varnish,  but 
made  considerably  thicker  by  allowing  a  greater  portion  of  color 
with  the  same  quantity  of  varnish,  than  the  red;  it  will  then 
work  clear  and  free  from  picks.  As  this  color  dries  rather 
rapidly,  the  rollers  or  balls  will  require  to  be  frequently  washed. 

Other  colors  may  be  made,  viz.  lake  and  indian  red,  which 
produce  a  deep  red;  verditure  and  indigo,  for  blues;  orpiment, 
pink,  yellow  ochre,,  for  yellows;  verdigris  and  green  verditure, 
for  green,  &c.  All  these  colors  should  be  ground  with  soft 
varnish,  being  in  themselves  dryers,  or  they  will  so  choke  up 
the  form,  as  to  require  it  to  be  frequently  washed;  the  consis- 
tency of  the  ink  must  be  governed  by  the  quality  of  the  work 
to  be  executed;  for  a  posting-bill  or  coarse  job,  the  ink  should 
be  very  thin,  the  proportion  of  varnish  being  much  greater  than 
when  required  for  fine  work;  should  the  work  be  a  wood  cut, 
or  small  type,  the  pigment  should  be  made  as  thick  as  possible. 

In  working  the  above  colors,  there  will  be  a  great  deal  of 
difficulty,  unless  they  are  ground  perfectly  smooth;  too  much 
care  and  labor  cannot  therefore  be  bestowed  upon  them. 

The  best  colors  for  printing,  are  those  of  the  lightest  body  and 
brightest  color. 

Boiling  ley,  made  of  American  potash,  should  be  used  for 
washing  the  forms. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

INKING  APPARATUS. 

To  procure  a  good  press  being  a  printer's  first  care,  his  next  is 
the  best  manner  of  applying  the  ink  to  the  type,  so  as  to  pre- 
serve a  perfect  uniformity  of  color;  to  gain  this  end,  has  been 
the  study  of  many  in  the  profession ;  and  various  have  been 
their  experiments  to  accomplish  this  desirable  object. 


BALLS. 

PELTS  were  formerly  used,  and  when  in  perfect  order  would 
produce  good  work;  but  the  difficulty  of  putting  them  in  order, 
and  the  filthiness  attending  them,  led  to  the  introduction  of  the 
dressed  sheep  shins,  now  in  use  with  those  who  still  continue 
the  practice  of  beating;  a  practice  which  must,  in  general, 
give  place  to  the  more  perfect  mode  of  rolling. 

Composition  Balls  are  made  as  described  below,  substituting 
instead  of  the  skin,  a  cotton  cloth;  the  ball  being  properly 
knocked  up,  must  then  be  dipped  into  the  melted  composition, 
and  held  in  the  hand  till  it  forms  a  smooth  surface  on  the 
face,  and  is  perfectly  cool,  after  which  we  repeat  the  dipping 
until  a  sufficient  thickness  of  composition  is  obtained,  when 
it  will  require  the  same  treatment  laid  down  for  rollers. 

We  introduce  the  following  account  of  Pelt  Balls,  in  order  to 
show  the  important  alteration  which  has  taken  place  in  this 
respect,  but  more  particularly  to  give  the  printer  proper  direc- 
tions for 

KNOCKING  UP  BALLS. 

PELTS  are  used  for  this  purpose,  and  such  are  chosen  as  have 
a  strong  grain,  and  the  grease  well  worked  out  of  them.  They 
are  purchased  either  wet  or  dry ;  if  dry,  they  are  put  to  soak  in 
chamber-ley.  One  skin  generally  makes  two  proper  sized  balls. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  259 

When  the  skin  has  soaked  sufficiently,  which  will  require 
about  fourteen  or  fifteen  hours,  it  is  taken  out  of  the  ley,  and 
curried;  that  is,  by  putting  the  skin  round  the  currying  iron,  or 
any  upright  post,  and  taking  hold  of  each  end  of  it,  and  draw- 
ing it  with  as  much  force  as  possible,  backwards  and  forwards, 
against  the  post,  which  discharges  a  good  deal  of  the  water  and 
lime,  and  renders  it  more  pliable;  he  then  cuts  the  skin  exactly 
in  two,  and  puts  them  under  his  feet,  and  continues  to  tread 
them  till  he  is  unable  to  discover  the  smallest  particle  of  water, 
or  till  it  sticks  to  the  foot  in  treading.  The  skin  is  then  laid  on 
a  wetting  board,  or  a  vacant  stone,  and  stretched,  by  rubbing 
the  ball  stock  on  it,  as  much  as  possible.  He  then  places  a 
lining  (which  is  a  worn  out  skin,  and  which  has  been  pre- 
viously soaked,  but  not  trodden,)  on  the  skin,  and  nails  them 
with  one  nail  to  the  ball  stock;  he  then  proceeds  to  lay  the  dif- 
ferent cardings  of  the  wool  one  upon  the  other,  crossways,  till 
he  has  sufficient  for  the  ball;  he  then  takes  it  up  by  the  bottom 
corners,  and  grasps  it  into  a  circular  form,  with  which  he  fills 
the  ball  stock,  then  brings  the  skin  opposite  the  part  already 
nailed,  and  makes  that  also  fast  with  another  nail.  He  then 
puts  two  nails  immediately  opposite  each  other,  between  the 
fastenings  already  made,  and  proceeds  to  put  the  skin  in  plaits, 
about  an  inch  wide;  through  each  plait  a  nail  is  driven;  the 
superfluous  skin  should  then  be  cut  off,  within  half  an  inch  of 
the  nails.  Balls  are  well  knocked  up  when  the  wool  is  so 
placed  as  to  form  a  full  even  face,  that  every  part  of  the  skin 
may  bear  upon  the  letter;  not  rising  in  hillocks,  or  falling  into 
dales;  not  having  too  much  wool  in  them,  for  that  will  render 
them  soon  hard  and  uneasy  for  the  pressman  to  work  with;  or 
too  little,  for  that  will  make  the  skin,  as  the  wool  settles  with 
working,  soon  flap,  and  wrap  over  into  wrinkles,  so  that  he 
cannot  so  well  distribute  the  ink  on  his  balls. 


SKIN  ROLLERS. 

IT  appears  that  the  skin  rollers  were  not  used  in  England. 
They  were  first  introduced  in  this  country  by  a  Mr.  Maxwell, 
of  Philadelphia,  about  the  year  1807,  and  soon  after  by  him 


260  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

abandoned^  not  being  able  to  make  them  work  properly :  they 
remained  out  of  use  for  several  years,  until  they  were  again 
introduced  by  Mr.  Fanshaw,  of  New  York,  about  1815.  They 
were  never  considered  so  good  as  balls :  being  too  heavy  for 
the  hand,,  they  were  always  used  behind  the  press. 


COMPOSITION  ROLLERS. 

IN  noticing  the  composition  rollers,  we  shall  present  to  the 
reader  all  the  information  that  we  have  been  able  to  collect, 
together  with  the  observations  resulting  from  a  practice  of  nearly 
twenty  years. 

This  composition  appears  to  have  been  discovered  by  the 
mere  chance  observation  of  a  process  in  the  Staffordshire  pot- 
teries, in  which  they  use  what  are  there  called  dabbers.  These 
were  formed  of  a  composition  which  appeared  to  possess  every 
requisite  for  holding  and  distributing  the  ink,  imparting  it 
equally  over  the  form,  and  being  easily  kept  clean,  soft,  and 
pliable.  Mr.  B.  Foster,  a  compositor  at  Wey bridge,  England, 
was  the  first  who  applied  it  to  letter-press  printing,  (about  the 
year  1815)  by  spreading  it,  in  a  melted  state,  upon  coarse  can- 
vass; and  making  balls,  in  all  other  respects,  in  the  usual  man- 
ner. The  inventors  of  printing  machinery  soon  caught  the  idea, 
and  by  running  the  composition  as  a  coat  upon  wooden  cylin- 
ders, produced  the  apparatus  so  long  and  unsuccessfully  sought 
for,  and  without  which,  machine  printing  would  never  have 
succeeded. 

Rollers,,  like  most  other  improvements,  have  met  with  con- 
siderable opposition  ;  yet  their  superiority  must  certainly  be  ac- 
knowledged by  all  who  have  become  perfectly  acquainted  with 
them. 

As  this  composition  has  now  become  one  of  the  most  essen- 
tial requisites  of  a  printing  office,  and  as  most  printers  are  de- 
sirous of  making  their  own  rollers,  (which  plain  name  seems 
to  have  been  generally  adopted  for  the  revolving  cylinder,)  AVC 
shall  endeavor  to  describe  the  proportion  of  its  ingredients,  and 
its  principal  advantages :  the  first,  and  most  important,  is  that 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  261 

of  doing  clean  .work;  in  this  respect  they  are  decidedly  better 
than  balls,  as  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  take  out  picks,  or  clean 
the  head  lines;  and  a  roller  is  frequently  worked  all  day  with- 
out the  necessity  of  cleaning  it.  The  next  consideration  is  in 
point  of  cheapness,  when  compared  with  balls.  The  pressman 
will  also  find  that  they  require  but  little  attention  when  he  has 
become  perfectly  acquainted  with  them.  The  softness  and  deli- 
cacy of  the  composition  render  it  less  liable  than  balls,  to  injure 
the  fine  hair  strokes  of  the  letter — this  consideration  alone  is 
sufficient  to  warrant  an  experiment.  The  great  saving  of  ink  is 
also  an  object  worthy  of  attention,  for  as  it  cannot  penetrate 
the  surface  of  the  composition,  there  can  be  but  little  wasted. 
The  composition  is  made  of  the  following  ingredients,  viz. 
For  a  Medium  roller, 

Three  Ibs.  of  best  Glue. 

Three  pints  of  sugar-house  Molasses. 

One  table-spoonful  of  Tar. 

This  is  calculated  for  approaching  cold  weather,  but  it  is 
necessary  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  molasses  to  one  quart  for 
summer  heat;  and  in  proportion  for  any  intermediate  tempera- 
ture. The  mould  best  calculated  to  receive  the  composition, 
should  be  made  of  brass,  copper,  or  iron,  with  the  interior  well 
polished.  The  above  quantity  of  composition  is  intended  for  a 
roller  of  twenty-seven  inches  in  length,  and  three  and  a  half 
inches  diameter,  with  a  wooden  cylinder  of  two  and  a  half  in- 
ches diameter,  which  will  give  half  an  inch  thickness  of  com- 
position. The  thickness  of  the  composition  may  be  varied 
according  to  the  size  of  the  wooden  cylinder. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  MAKING  COMPOSITION. 

THE  glue  must  be  put  into  a  bucket,  or  vessel  containing  water 
enough  to  cover  it,  and  remain  in  soak  five  or  six  hours,  or 
until  it  shall  have  soaked  nearly  through,  leaving  about  one- 
third  dry  in  the  centre,  which  may  be  ascertained  by  breaking 


262  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

a  piece  of  it;  it  is  then  taken  out  of  the  water^  and  laid  on  a 
board  to  dry  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  when  it  becomes  pliable 
like  a  piece  of  sole  leather,  the  water  having  penetrated  through 
the  centre ;  it  is  then  in  a  proper  state  for  melting,,  and  should 
be  put  into  the  melting  kettle. 


This  must  be  a  double  vessel  like  a  glue-kettle,  so  that  the  com- 
position in  the  inner  kettle  may  be  melted  by  the  heat  of  the 
boiling  water  in  the  outer  one.  For  this  purpose,  an  iron  pot 
or  a  strong  boiler  may  be  the  best  or  readiest  thing  found,  into 
which  let  a  tin  vessel  be  fitted,  with  a  flanch  to  rest  on  the  rim, 
so  as  to  leave  one  or  two  inches  under  it.  This  vessel  may  be 
two  or  three  inches  above  the  top  of  the  boiler,  and  so  that  the 
lid  of  one  may  fit  the  other;  it  must  also  have  a  lip  for  pouring 
out  the  composition. 

Being  thus  prepared,  put  the  glue  into  the  inner  vessel,  the 
boiler  having  in  it  as  much  water  as  it  will  contain  when  the 
inner  vessel  is  in  its  place.  Put  it  on  the  fire,  and  keep  the  water 
boiling,  the  heat  of  which  will  soon  cause  the  glue  to  dis- 
solve, and  evaporate  part  of  the  water.  When  the  glue  is  all 
melted,  the  molasses  should  be  poured  slowly  into  it.  stirring  it 
all  the  while,  and  shortly  after  the  tar  should  be  added;  th.e  lat- 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  263 

ter  ingredient,  however,  is  not  considered  important  in  the  com- 
position, as  but  few  printers  make  use  of  it;  the  water  should 
then  be  kept  boiling  for  at  least  two  or  three  hours,  occasionally 
replenishing  it,  during  which  time  the  composition  should  be 
frequently  stirred,  when  it  will  be  ready  for  pouring. 

Having  given  the  receipt  which  we  think  -most  favorably  of, 
and  which  our  long  experience  has  fully  tested,  we  will  now 
present  the  reader  with  several,  the  merits  of  which  we  are  un- 
able to  appreciate,  never  having  tried  them. 

Mr.  Hansard,  an  eminent  English  printer,  and  to  whom  we 
are  indebted  for  much  valuable  information  in  relation  to  our 
Art,  says — "  Take  glue,  made  from  the  cuttings  of  parchment 
or  vellum,  fine  green  molasses,  pure  as  from  the  sugar  refiners, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  the  substance  called  Paris-white,  and 
you  will  have  every  ingredient  requisite  for  good  composition. 
The  proportion  as  follows : — 

Glue,  2  Ibs.  Molasses,  6  Ibs.  Paris-white,  £  Ib. 
Put  the  glue  in  a  little  water  for  a  few  hours  to  soak,  pour 
off  the  liquid ;  put  the  glue  over  the  fire,  and  when  it  is  dis- 
solved, add  the  molasses,  and  let  them  be  well  incorporated 
together  for  at  least  an  hour;  then  with  a  very  fine  sieve,  mix 
the  Paris-white,*  frequently  stirring  the  composition.  In  another 
hour,  or  less,  it  will  be  fit  to  pour  into  the  mould. 

Another  receipt  says  2  Ibs.  of  Glue  to  1  Ib.  of  Molasses. 

Another      ...      2 3 

Another      ...      3 6 

Add  to  the  last  receipt  12  drops  of  the  following  liquid : 
"A  piece  of  sal  ammonia  about  the  size  of  a  nut,  powder  the 
same  with  about  two  ounces  of  Pearl-ash,  and  dissolve  them  in 
a  glass  of  clear  water." 

*  This  is  the  carbonate  of  barytes,  terra  po?iderosa,  or  ponderous 
earth ;  the  most  active  of  alkaline  earths ;  and  acts  upon  the  animal 
economy  as  a  violent  poison.  It  is  found  in  combination  either  with  the 
sulphuric  acid,  forming  the  native  sulphate  of  barytes,  or  heavy  spar. 
It  is  chiefly  used  in  adulteration  of  paint,  giving  a  body  almost  equal  to 
white  lead.  It  is  very  difficult  to  be  obtained  pure,  being  often  substi- 
tuted with  Paris-white  of  the  oil  shops,  which  is  nothing  more  than  a 
finer  kind  of  whiting. 

23 


204  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

In  the  Printer's  Manual,  a  small  work,  published  in  New 
York,  we  see  recommended  two  pounds  and  a  half  of  glue,  and 
two  quarts  and  a  pint  of  molasses.  With  such  proportions,  we 
cannot  doubt  the  necessity  of  his  introducing  something  like  the 
following: — 

"  Washing  Rollers. — A  method  has  long  been  sought,  by 
which  rollers  might  be  cleaned,  without  washing  the  molasses 
from  the  glue.  It  has  at  length  been  found.  Take  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  common  ley,  and  add  a  little  fine  salt;  it  is  by  far 
better  than  any  other  way  by  which  rollers  can  be  washed. 
The  potash  destroying  the  oil  in  the  ink,  it  no  longer  adheres  to 
the  composition;  and  the  salt  counteracts  the  effect  the  water 
would  otherwise  have  on  the  molasses." 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  above  receipts  differ  very  materi- 
ally; and  as  the  composition  is  subject  to  the  changes  of  the 
weather,  its  consistency  must  greatly  depend  on  the  judgment 
of  the  workmen.  Of  the  above  receipts,  we  are  disposed  to 
think  most  favorably  of  Mr.  Hansard's ;  but  cannot  admit  its 
superiority  over  the  one  previously  laid  down. 


PREPARING  THE  MOULD. 

IN  preparing  the  mould,  care  should  be  taken  to  have  its  inte- 
rior surface  perfectly  free  from  any  particles  of  dirt,  or  compo- 
sition ;  it  should  then  be  well  oiled  with  a  swab,  kept  for  that 
purpose,  at  the  same  time  being  particular  not  to  leave  too  much 
on  the  surface,  as  it  will  run  when  the  heat  of  the  composition 
comes  to  it,  and  cause  an  imperfect  face  on  the  roller:  the  end 
pieces  should  then  be  oiled,  and,  together  with  the  cylinder, 
placed  in  the  mould,  the  upper  end  piece  being  very  open  to 
allow  the  composition  to  pass  down  between  the  interior  of  the 
mould  and  the  cylinder.  The  cylinder  must  be  well  secured 
from  rising,  before  the  composition  is  poured  in,  by  placing  a 
stick  upon  the  end  of  it,  sufficiently  long  to  reach  above  the  end 
of  the  mould,  and  be  tied  down  with  twine.  The  composition 
should  be  poured  very  slowly,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
cause  it  only  to  run  down  one  side  of  the  cylinder,  allowing  the 
air  to  escape  freely  up  the  other. 


TYPOGIIAPHIA.  265 

If  the  mould  is  filled  at  night,  the  roller  may  be  drawn  on  the 
following  morning,  but  should  not  be  used,  for  at  least  twenty- 
four  hours,  except  in  very  cold  weather;  it  should  be  cleaned 
before  it  is  used,  by  rolling  it  about  the  floor  until  its  surface  is 
covered  with  dust,  then  with  a  sponge  wash  it  off  quickly  with 
water,  wipe  it  dry,  and  let  it  remain  until  in  a  proper  state  for 
working. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  WORKING  ROLLERS. 

HAVING  cast  three  or  four  rollers  for  each  press,  we  select  two 
of  them  for  immediate  use,  which  are  put  into  the  roller  frame 
for  working.  To  determine  when  a  roller  is  in  order  for  work- 
ing, we  press  the  hand  gently  to  it,  to  discover  whether  it  is 
adhesive  or  not,  if  so,  and  the  fingers  can  be  drawn  lightly  and 
smoothly  over  its  surface,  it  may  then  be  said  to  be  in  order; 
but  should  it  be  adhesive,  and  the  fingers  will  not  glide  smoothly 
over  its  surface,  it  is  then  not  sufficiently  dry,  and  should  be 
exposed  to  the  air  until  it  possesses  the  above  qualities :  a  roller 
well  washed  at  night,  and  put  into  an  air-tight  box  till  morning, 
will  generally  be  found  in  good  order  for  working.  For  that 
purpose,  eveiy  press-room  should  be  furnished  with  a  large  up- 
right box  or  closet  of  sufficient  size  to  contain  alt  the  rollers  in 
a  horizontal  position,  their  journals  resting  on  supporters  at  the 
end  of  the  box. 

To  wash  the  rollers,  nothing  more  is  requisite  than  the  appli- 
cation of  water,  after  rolling  them  in  the  dust;  in  cold  weather 
a  little  warmed,  but  cold  as  possible  in  warm  weather,  which 
needs  only  to  be  used  with  the  hand  or  a  sponge;  some  press- 
men, however,  prefer  washing  them  with  ley,  after  which  they 
should  be  well  rinsed  with  clean  water. 

In  very  warm  weather,  the  rollers  should  be  occasionally 
changed,  to  prevent  them  from  getting  too  soft,  or  from  melt- 
ing; it  is  frequently  found  when  a  roller  is  sick,  or  soft,  or  you 
do  not  know  what*  is  its  ailment,  that  washing  it  clean,  and 
hanging  it  to  rest  for  a  time,  restores  it  to  as  good  a  state  as 
ever,  but  it  should  not  be  washed  till  after  it  has  cooled  a  little, 
as  the  cold  water  has  a  tendency  to  wrinkle  it  very  much  when 


266  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

over-heated.  Great  care  should  also  be  taken  to  keep  them 
from  the  effects  of  the  sun,  as  they  are  easily  melted,  and  in 
warm  weather  they  should  be  kept  in  as  cool  a  place. as  possible 
during  the  night.  Should  any  accident  happen  to  the  roller,  to 
injure  its  surface,  it  may  be  melted  again  and  re-moulded  as 
before. 

Since  the  introduction  of  composition,  a  great  annual  expense 
is  saved  in  skins  and  wool,  and  a  vast  deal  of  the  precious  time 
of  the  men.  Upon  the  introduction  of  the  balls,  it  was  calcu- 
lated that  the  saving  to  each  man  was  a  half  a  day  in  a  week; 
and  we  conceive  that  still  more  is  saved  by  the  rollers.  But 
what  is  above  every  other  consideration,  the  quality  of  the  work 
is  materially  improved,  and  the  labor  is  reduced  to  compara- 
tive ease  by  rolling  over  a  form  instead  of  beating  it. 

It  is  curious  to  contemplate  the  various  changes  which  have 
taken  place  in  a  press-room,  as  far  as  regards  manual  labor, 
within  a  very  few  years.  Previous  to  the  introduction  of  the 
iron  presses,  the  beating  was  the  lighter  labor,  and  pulling  the 
heavier;  to  the  latter  of  which  an  apprentice  was  seldom  put, 
except  for  very  light  work,  for  the  first  twelve  months.  Then 
pulling  became  the  lighter — the  stronger  beat,  and  the  weaker 
pulled.  But  when  the  rollers  were  introduced,  the  stronger 
again  look  the  bar,  and  the  weaker  rolled:  and  a  well-grown 
lad  was  capable  of  taking  both  parts  in  the  first  month  of  his 
service.  The  pulling  is  now  the  only  hard  labor,  the  rolling 
requiring  only  a  due  degree  of  adroitness  and  attention. 

About  twelve  years  since,  a  machine  was  introduced  to  sup- 
ply the  place  of  a  boy  in  rolling  the  form,  &c.  which  was  acted 
upon  by  weights  and  springs  wound  up  by  the  running  in  of 
the  bed;  this  machine  performed  the  various  offices  of  rolling, 
taking  ink,  and  distributing,  but  owing  to  its  complicated  con- 
struction, was  very  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  Within  a  few 
years,  however,  various  improvements  have  been  made  upon 
them,  and  their  construction  much  simplified. 


CHAPTER  X, 

IMPROVED  PRESSES. 

AMONG  the  various  improvements  which  have  taken  place  in 
many  branches  of  our  Art,  we  conceive  that  none  have  tended 
more  to  the  advancement  of  beauty  in  execution,  and  the  com- 
fort and  convenience  of  the  workman,  than  the  improved  presses 
of  the  present  day. 


THE  COLUMBIAN  PRESS. 


THE  press  thus  called  was  invented  by  Mr.  George  Clymer,  of 
Philadelphia,  about  forty  years  since,  and  made  the  subject 
of  a  patent;  shortly  after  its  invention,  Mr.  Clymer  proceeded 
to  Europe,  where  he  introduced  them  to  the  notice  of  the  pro- 
fession in  1818,  greatly  improved  in  their  manufacture. 

They  were  held  in  high  estimation  in  Europe,  and  are  still 
in  use  there:  but  in  this  country  they  have  been  superceded  by 
the  simplicity,  lightness,  and  cheapness  of  the  Washington 
Press. 

23* 


268 


TYPOGRAPHIC 


THE  WASHINGTON  PKESS 

WAS  invented  by  Mr.  Samuel  Rust,  of  New  York,  to  whose 
ingenuity  and  skill  we  are  indebted  for  a  valuable  combination 
of  levers.  They  are  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Hoe  &  Co.,  of 
New  York.  The  frame  represented  in  the  engraving  is  an 
essential  improvement  on  the  old  cast-iron  rims ;  the  columns 
at  the  sides  of  the  press  are  cast-iron  hollow  cylinders,  with 
wrought  iron  bars  running  perpendicularly  through  them, 
which  are  attached  to  the  head  and  winter  of  the  press,  ren- 
dering the  frame  less  liable  to  be  broken,  more  portable,  and 
certainly  much  neater  in  appearance. 


THE   SMITH  PRESS. 

THIS  press  was  invented  by  Mr.  Peter  Smith,  of  New  York, 
and  is  manufactured  by  Hoe  &  Co. 

The  only  difference  between  this  and  the  Washington,  and 
other  presses,  is  the  application  of  the  wedge-power  between 
the  toggles.  They  are  not  considered  as  powerful  as  the 
Washington  Press  by  the  same  makers. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  269 


MACHINE  PRINTING. 

THE  first  cylinder  press  was  invented  in  England  about  the 
year  1814,  and  caused  a  great  revolution  in  the  art  from  the 
facilities  which  it.  afforded  for  printing  sheets  of  paper  which 
could  not  be  worked  on  a  hand-press  ;  thus  enabling  proprietors 
of  newspapers  to  enlarge  them  to  a  previously  unparalleled 
extent,  or  to  afford  them  at  prices  so  greatly  reduced  as  to  en- 
large their  circulation  to  an  almost  fabulous  number.  By  suc- 
cessive improvements  and  discoveries,  power-presses  have  been 
so  far  perfected  as  to  permit  their  application  to  the  finest 
description  of  book-work. 

The  most  celebrated  cylinder  press  is  Hoe's  Eight-Cylinder 
Type-Revolving  Machine,  which  is  said  to  be  capable  of  throw- 
ing off  20,000  impressions  per  hour.  A.  peculiarity  of  this 
press  is,  that  each  page  of  a  newspaper  is  locked  up  upon  a 
detached  segment  of  the  large  cylinder,  called  by  the  composi- 
tors a  "turtle  ;"  and  this  constitutes  the  bed  and  chase.  The 
column  rules  run  parallel  with  the  shafts  of  the  cylinder,  and 
are  consequently  straight;  while  the  head,  advertising,  and 
dash  rules  are  in  the  form  of  segments  of  a  circle.  Eight  per- 
sons are  required  to  feed  in  the  sheets,  which  are  thrown  out 
and  laid  in  heaps  by  self-acting  flyers. 

A  similar  machine,  with  four  impression-cylinders,  capable 
of  printing  10,000  impressions  per  hour,  is  also  manufactured 
at  the  same  establishment.  One  of  these  has  been  recently 
introduced  into  England. 

The  cut  on  the  following  page  represents  Hoe's  Single  Small 
Cylinder  Press.  It  will  give  from  2000  to  3000  impressions 
per  hour. 

The  best  power-press  for  book-work  is  that  invented  and 
made  by  Isaac  Adams  &  Co.,  of  Boston.  So  excellent  is  its 
performance,  that  in  every  extensive  printing-establishment  it 
has  almost  entirely  superseded  the  hand-press.  This  press 
has  also,  we  believe,  been  introduced  into  Great  Britain.  We 
give  a  representation  of  it  on  page  271. 


-7— ., 


270 


272  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

MACHINE  JOB   PRESSES. 

INVENTION  has  also  been  active  in  producing  machines  for 
fine  and  expeditious  card  and  job  printing.  Of  these  we  may 
mention  those  of  Ruggles,  Hoe,  Adams,  Gordon,  and  Lawyer. 
Some  of  these,  it  is  asserted,  will  print  at  the  rate  of  from  1000 
to  3000  impressions  an  hour.  We  give  engravings  of  two. 


KUGGLES   COMBINATION    PRESS. 


CHAPTER  XL 

WAREHOUSE  DEPARTMENT. 

THE  warehouse  department  of  a  printer  is  a  highly  important 
part  of  his  concern ;  the  management  of  which  involves  his  own 
credit,,  and  materially  affects  the  interest  of  his  employers:  it  is 
therefore  indispensably  necessary  to  appoint  a  man  for  the 
management  of  it,  who  has  been  regularly  brought  up  to  the 
business;  on  whom  the  utmost  reliance  may  be  placed  for  so- 
briety and  honesty,  and  who  can  be  taught  to  feel  and  act  upon 
the  principle  of  making  his  employer's  interest  the  object  of  his 
constant  solicitude.  Those  who  have  not  such  qualifications 
will  be  continually  liable,  through  ignorance  and  carelessness, 
to  fall  into  many  serious  mistakes.  The  employer  or  overseer 
should  frequently  look  to  the  concerns  of  the  warehouse,  and 
see  that  the  people  employed  there,  forward  the  different  works 
with  expedition,  neatness,  and  accuracy. 

Having  made  these  observations,  we  shall  now  proceed  to 
speak  of  the  different  stages  of  this  department,  and  begin  by 
supposing  the  warehouse  to  be  quite  clear,  business  coming  in, 
and  the  warehouseman  just  entering  upon  his  office.  He 
should  first  be  provided  with  a  book,  which  is  termed  ff  Tfie 
Warehouse  Book"  agreeable  to  the  plan  in  the  following  page, 
about  the  size  of  a  foolscap  quarto.  When  the  porter  or  car- 
man brings  paper  from  the  stationer  or  bookseller,  the  ware- 
houseman should  demand  the  bill  of  delivery,  order  the  paper 
to  be  brought  in,  and  see  if  it  is  right  according  to  the  bill,  be- 
fore he  discharges  him;  and  if  right,  dismiss  him,  and  enter  it 
immediately  into  the  warehouse  book. 

This  plan  will  prevent  disputes  with  the  bookseller  or  author, 
relative  to  the  receipt  of  paper,  or  delivery  of  sheets,  as  the  sig- 
nature of  the  person  to  whom  the  sheets  were  delivered  can  be 


274 


TYPOGRAPHIA. 


O 
O 
PQ 

H 

B 

O 

ffi 

H 


" 

£ 

^ 

o 

o 

»H                                   •           . 

r~' 

•g 

p  o       oo 

£ 

Q 

^S    SP 

S 

fe 

0 

3 

OH 

1  * 

jj 

' 

s  s 

•rs 

O 

^^ 

o>  c 

S              CO 

«       ^^* 

'TS    fcl) 

-4      -       "§D.^ 

d 
8 

s'5 

0,2 

-£3^3 

28     iS  £ 
J^  *•*        E  *- 

0.5      "  cs 

H 

o^§ 

^S       1  c 

cc 

p 

H-  5 

EH    ^ 

Id      ll 

OQ 

OJ 

a; 

P 

0,1—  ! 

s 

O    OJ 

O  O        OO     |  O 
O  O         O  CO        CO 

H 

-4—       > 

•-i  CO        ^  CM        O 

O 

o  ^5 

1  *~« 

.    Qj 

02 

M 

£  j 

feo 

S  ?            " 

< 

^*-  1  ** 

o  ** 

o  fc                          > 

a 

w  ^o 

CO     ^        • 

QQ 

•2* 

S     .  ii                          "5 

o; 

0    S3 

S  <1  Q                                ^ 

O 

CH 

§  ^  s 

Oi 

kv< 

w 

o 

o3 
Q 

CO*        OO*        Tjl  O        ^  IO 

Sg     g    MM5S- 

»2      Q               || 

TYPOGRAPHIA.  275 

immediately  produced.  It  also  enables  the  warehouseman  to 
distinguish,,  with  more  ease,  the  different  articles  he  might  have 
occasion  to  refer  to. 

Having  entered  the  receipt  of  the  paper,  the  warehouseman 
should  then  write  on  each  bundle,  with  red  chalk,  the  title  of 
the  book  it  is  intended  for,  and  remove  it  into  a  part  of  the 
warehouse  most  out  of  his  way,  or  into  a  store-room  for  that 
purpose,  observing  to  place  it  so  as  to  take  up  as  little  room  as 
possible. 

OF  GIVING  OUT  PAPER  TO  WET. 

A  bundle  of  paper  contains  two  reams,  or  forty  quires,  and 
twenty-four  sheets  to  each  quire,  if  perfect;  if  not,  twenty 
quires  to  the  ream,  of  which  the  two  outside  quires  are  called 
corded  or  cassie,  as  they  only  serve  for  cases  to  the  ream.  These 
outside  quires  are  by  the  paper  maker  made  up  of  wrinkled, 
torn,  stained,  and  other  damaged  sheets,  yet  the  whole  quire 
very  rarely  consists  of  such  sheets;  but  frequently  some  good 
sheets  may  be  found  in  looking  them  over.  It  is  the  ware- 
houseman's business  to  lay  by  the  two  outside  quires,  and  cull 
them  when  most  convenient;  likewise  so  to  dispose  of  them, 
that  they  may  neither  be  at  the  beginning  nor  end,  but  about 
the  middle  of  the  volume,  or  use  them  for  jobs  or  proof  paper; 
for  they  are  seldom  so  perfect  as  the  inside  quires. 

It  is  the  general  custom  to  print  of  every  work  what  is  termed 
an  even  number,  either  250,  500,  750,  1000,  &c.  These  quan- 
tities are  given  out  for  the  wetter  in  tokens,  viz.  for  250  (sheets) 
one  token,  containing  10  quires  18  sheets;  for  500,  two  tokens 
— one  11  quires,  and  the  other  10  quiree  and  a  half;  for  750, 
three  tokens,  two  of  them  11  quires  each,  and  the  other  10 
quires  6  sheets;  and  for  1000,  four  tokens,  three  of  them  11 
quires  each,  and  the  other  10  quires.  If  a  work  is  printed  in 
half-sheets,  it  of  course  requires  only  half 'the  above  quantities. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  form  any  positive  and  invariable  rule 

for  the  quantity  to  be  given  out  for  short  numbers,  as  it  must 

depend,  in  some  degree,  upon  the  quality  of  the  paper.     The 

more  expensive  papers,  on  which,  generally,  short  numbers  or 

24 


276  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

fine  copies  are  printed,,  must  be  given  out  more  sparingly  than 
common  paper;  and  the  tympan  and  register  sheets  be  sup- 
plied by  a  more  common  sort,  cut  to  the  size  of  the  finer. 

For  numbers  up  to  150,  on  ordinary  paper,  six  sheets  over, 
will,  generally  speaking,  be  necessary:  the  warehouseman 
always  bearing  in  mind  to  reckon  for  each  25,  so  many  quires 
of  24  sheets,  and  the  same  number  of  sheets  in  the  first  instance, 
and  then  to  add  the  necessary  overplus. 

In  giving  out  paper  for  what  are  termed  jobs,  a  little  further 
observation  will  be  necessary.  It  has  been  usual  to  give  tables 
for  this  purpose,  but  weJiave  not  been  convinced  of  its  utility, 
as  few  printers  would  refer  to  a  book  for  such  calculations  on 
every  occasion,  when  they  could  be  so  easily  made  by  a  simple 
calculation  in  division. 

For  example,  a  job,  (label  or  any  thing  else)  750  number, 

32)750(23     32  on  a  sheet,  will  require  24  sheets,  which  will 

64  give  an  overplus  of  18.     If  this  is   not  thought 

sufficient,  a  remnant  or  sheet  more  must  be  given 

110          out,  calculating  that  where  a  sheet  has  to  be  cut 

96          into  many  parts,  some  further  allowance  must  be 

made   for  accidents.     The  overplus  sheets  being 

14          partly  allowed  for  tympan  sheets,  register  sheets, 

and  other  incidents;  such  as  bad  sheets,  faults  committed  in 

rolling,  pulling,  bad  register,  &c. ;  in  any  of  these  casualties, 

the  pressman  doubles  the  sheet  in  the  middle,  and  lays  it  across 

the  heap.     In  setting  out  the  paper,  the  warehouseman  lays 

each  token  with  the  folded  side,  or  back  part,  one  way,  and  the 

other  token  with  the  folded,  or  back  side,  the  other  way,  that 

the  wetter  may  distinguish  the  different  tokens.     When  this  is 

done,  he  writes  a  label,  and  puts  it  into  the  bundle,  thus:  Typo- 

%rapliia,  May  25,  1858,  that  the  pressman  may  know  how  long 

it  has  been  wet,  and  the  state  it  is  in  for  working. 

OF  HANGING  UP  PAPER  TO  DRY. 
WHEN  the  paper  is  worked  off  and  counted,  the  warehouse- 
man takes  the  heap  and  carries  it  to  the  drying  room,  where 
poles  are  fixed  for  the  purpose  of  hanging  the  sheets  upon  to 
dry,  and  lays  it  down  on  a  stool,  or  table,  of  a  convenient 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  277 

height,  with  one  end  of  the  heap  from  him;  he  then  takes  the 
handle  of  the  peel  in  one  hand,  and  lays  the  top  part  down 
upon  the  heap,  so  that  the  upper  edge  may  reach  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sheet;  after  which,  with  the  other  hand,  he  doubles 
over  so  much  of  the  printed  paper  as  he  thinks  sufficient  to 
hang  up  at  one  lift,  which  should  be  about  seventeen  sheets,  as 
near  as  he  can  guess,  or  twelve,  &.c.  as  he  can  allow  time  to 
dry,  or  have  pole-room  to  hang  them  on. 

In  hanging  up  the  lifts,  he  places  them  so  that  each  lift  may 
lap  about  an  inch  over  the  preceding  one,  till  he  has  disposed 
of  all  the  paper,  or  until  he  comes  to  the  end  of  the  pole.  It 
xvill  sometimes  be  necessary,  where  the  end  of  a  pole  is  ex- 
posed to  any  strong  current  of  air,  as  a  window,  &,c.  to  lock 
the  last  lift.  This  is  done  by  folding  a  lift  two  or  three  times, 
so  as  to  concentrate  its  weight  in  a  small  compass,  and  hang- 
ing this  over  the  last  lift  near  the  window,  it  will  generally 
prevent  the  air  taking  the  sheets  off  the  poles.  - 


OF  TAKING  DOWN  SHEETS  WHEN  DRY. 

WHEN  the  sheets  are  sufficiently  dry,  the  warehouseman  takes 
his  peel,  and  begins  with  the  last  lift  hung  up,  on  account  of 
the  wrapper  being  with  that  lift,  and  continues  to  proceed  to 
the  other,  in  the  reverse  order  to  that  of  hanging  them  up,  suc- 
cessively taking  them  down  and  brushing  them,  if  dusty,  till  he 
has  finished  the  whole;  taking  care  that  he  lays  the  single  sig- 
nature of  each  lift  one  over  the  other;  if  this  is  not  done,  it  will 
occasion  considerable  trouble  to  turn  them  when  they  are  to  be 
folded. 

There  is  also  another  way  of  taking  the  sheets  down  from 
the  poles,  which  is,  by  laying  the  flat  side  of  the  peel  against 
the  edge  of  that  lift  which  hangs  over  the  other  sheets,  and 
pushing  the  peel  forward,  forcing  them  to  slide,  one  doubling 
over  the  other,  and  so  finishing  the  business  with  more  expedi- 
tion. But  this  method  cannot  be  recommended,  because  the 
dust,  which  flies  about  while  the  sheets  are  hanging,  must 
lodge  on  them,  and  by  pushing  them  forward,  is  rubbed  in,  in- 
stead of  being1  brushed  off. 


278  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

OP  FILLING  IN  AND  PRESSING  SHEETS. 

WHEN  the  sheets  are  taken  down,  the  warehouseman  removes 
them  to  the  warehouse,  where  they  are  filled  in  between  smooth 
paste-boards  made  for  the  purpose.  This  operation  is  generally" 
performed  by  boys  or  girls,  who,  after  a  little  practice,  become 
exceedingly  expert  at  it.  We  shall  endeavor  to  be  somewhat 
minute  in  our  description  of  this  operation,  as  it  seems  to  have 
been  entirely  overlooked  by  former  writers  on  this  subject;  we 
will  suppose  the  paste-boards  to  have  sheets  between  them, 
which  will  be  the  case  after  they  have  been  once  used.  The 
warehouse  being  provided  with  long  tables  or  benches,  secured 
to  the  wall,  and  a  sufficient  number  of  moveable  tables  about 
the  size  of  the  largest  paper,  the  warehouseman  places  one  of 
the  small  tables  endwise  against  the  long  one,  forming  a  right 
angle,  and  upon  which  to  lay  the  pressed  sheets,  as  they  come 
out  of  the  boards ;  the  boy  then  takes  his  stand  at  the  right  side 
of  the  table,  with  the  dry  unpressed  sheets  at  his  right  hand, 
and  the  paste-boards  at  his  left,  somewhat  elevated,  leaving 
sufficient  space  before  him  to  fill  in  the  sheets ;  he  then  pro- 
ceeds as  follows: — He  first  moistens  the  thumb  of  his  right 
hand,  and  reaches  across  to  the  paste-boards  at  his  left,  drawing 
one  off  with  his  thumb,  and  placing  it  before  him;  he  then 
catches  a  sheet  of  the  dry  paper  also  with  his  right  hand,  and 
places  it  as  near  the  centre  of  the  paste  board  as  possible,  then 
twisting  his  body  nimbly  round  to  the  left,  he  slides  the  pressed 
sheet  from  the  pile  of  paste-boards,  to  the  table  at  his  left  side, 
and  in  resuming  his  former  position,  again  draws  off  a  paste- 
board with  his  thumb,  and  so  on,  till  the  gross  or  bundle  is 
filled.  It  is  then  laid  aside,  and  another  bundle  filled  and  laid 
across  the  former,  taking  care  always  to  keep  the  bundles  sepa- 
rated until  they  are  put  in  press,  when  they  are  separated  by 
smooth  boards  made  of  cherry  or  other  hard  wood.  The  bun- 
dles being  all  filled  in,  the  warehouseman  then  proceeds  to  fill 
up  the  standing  press,  putting  in  one  bundle  at  a  time,  and 
placing  a  pressing  board  between  them ;  there  should  also  be  a 
stout  plank  introduced  between  the  top  board  and  the  platen. 
In  case  the  press  should  not  hold  quite  as  much  as  we  wish, 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  279 

more  may  sometimes  be  added  by  unscrewing  the  press,  after 
it  has  been  once  screwed  down,  which  so  compresses  the  bun- 
dles, that  one  or  two  more  may  often  be  admitted.  The  press 
is  then  finally  screwed  down  as  tight  as  possible,  and  should 
remain  so  for  at  least  twelve  hours,  when  it  should  be  entirely 
emptied  before  the  sheets  are  taken  out  of  the  boards.  In  all 
these  operations,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  sides  of  the 
piles  or  heaps  perfectly  even. 


OP  COUNTING  OUT  AND  PUTTING  BY  SHEETS. 

WHEN  the  sheets  are  taken  out,  the  warehouseman  knocks 
them  up,  and  after  counting  them  into  quires,  proceeds  to  tie 
them  up  in  wrappers,  marking  the  name  of  the  work  and  sig- 
nature on  each  bundle;  he  then  puts  them  by  in  that  part  of 
the  room  where  they  will  be  most  out  of  his  way,  tuTwanted. 
But  two  or  three  sheets  of  each  signature  should  be  put  by,  in 
case  the  author,  bookseller,  or  employer,  should  want  a  copy 
of  the  work,  or  a  specimen  of  as  many  sheets  as  are  finished. 
If  this  has  not  been  done,  and  clean  sheets  should  be  wanted, 
he  would  then  be  obliged  to  lift  every  signature  to  get  a  sheet 
out  of  each,  which  will  occasion  a  great  loss  of  time;  this  may 
easily  be  prevented  by  reserving  a  few  sheets  as  they  are 
worked  off. 


SIZES  OF  PAPER  AS  MADE  BY  MACHINERY. 

Double  Imperial,       .         .         .         .  32  by  44. 

Do.     Super  Royal,        .         .         .  27  by. 42. 

Do.  Medium,  23  by  36—24  by  37^—25  by  38. 

Royal  and  Half,  ....  25  by  29. 

Imperial  and  Half,  ...  26  by  32. 

Imperial, 22  by  32. 

Super  Royal, 21  by  27. 

Royal,  ...  19  by  24—20  by  25. 

Medium, 18*  by  23£ 

Demy,  .  ,  17  by  22. 

Folio  Post,  .  .  .  .  16  by  21. 

Fools  Cap, 14  by  17. 

Crown, 15  by  20. 

24* 


280  TYPOGRAPHIA. 

TECHNICAL  TERMS  USED  IN  PRINTING. 

Bank.     A  stage  about  four  feet  high,  to  lay  sheets  on  at  press. 

Beard  of  a  letter.  The  outer  angle  of  the  square  shoulder  of 
the  shank  which  reaches  almost  to  the  face  of  the  letter. 

Bearer.  A  piece  of  reglet  to  bear  off  the  impression  from  a 
blank  page. — A  long  piece  of  furniture,  type  high,  used  in 
working  jobs. — A  solid  faced  type  interspersed  in  the  blank 
parts  of  a  page,  in  composing  for  stereotyping,  to  resist  the 
force  of  the  knife  in  shaving  the  plates. 

Bite.  Is  when  the  inked  impression  of  the  page,  or  any  part 
of  it,  is  prevented  by  the  frisket's  not  being  sufficiently  cut  out. 

Blankets.     Woollen  cloth  to  lay  between  the  tympans. 

Body.     The  shank  of  the  letter. 

Bottled-arsed.  When  letter  is  wider  at  the  bottom  than  the  top. 

Brayer.  A  round  wooden  rubber,  flat  at  the  bottom,  used  to 
bray  or  rub  out  the  ink.  Now  substituted  by  a  small  roller 
about  five  inches  long. 

Break.    A  short  line. 

Broadside.  A  form  of  one  full  page,  printed  on  one  side  of  a 
whole  sheet  of  paper. 

Broken  Matter.  When  the  orderly  succession  in  which  the 
letters  stood,  in  a  line,  page,  or  form  is  broken  or  mingled  to- 
gether, which  mingled  letters  are  called  pi. 

Bur.  When  the  founder  has  neglected  to  take  off  the  rough, 
ness  of  the  letter  in  dressing. 

Cassie  Paper.     Broken  paper. 

Clean  Proof.     When  a  proof  has  but  few  faults  in  it. 

Close  matter.     Matter  with  few  breaks. 

Correct.  A  compositor  is  said  to  correct  when  he  mends  the 
faults  marked  in  a  proof. 

Corrections.     The  letters  marked  in  a  proof. 

Devil.    The  Errand-boy  of  a  Printing  house. 

Double.  Among  compositors,  a  repetition  of  words;  also, 
among  pressmen,  a  sheet  that  is  twice  pulled  and  mackled. 

Dressing  a  Chase  or  Form.  The  fitting  the  pages  and  chase 
with  furniture  and  quoins. 

Drive  out.     When  a  compositor  sets  wide. 


TYPOGRAPHIA.  281 

Fat  face,  or  fat  Letter,,  is  a  broad  stemmed  letter. 

Fat  work.     Is  when  there  are  many  break-lines  in  a  work. 

First  Form.     The  form  that  contains  the  first  page  of  a  sheet. 

Fly.  The  person  that  takes  off  the  sheets  from  the  press  in 
cases  of  expedition. 

Form.    The  pages  when  fitted  into  a  chase. 

Foul  Proof.     When  a  proof  has  many  faults  marked  in  it. 

Fount.  The  whole  number  of  types  cast  to  one  body  and  face. 

Friar.     Where  any  part  of  the  form  has  not  received  the  ink. 

Full  Press.  When  two  men  work  at  the  press  with  hand 
rollers  or  balls. 

Get  in.     To  set  close. 

Good  color.     Sheets  printed  neither  too  black  nor  too  light. 

Good  work.  Is  so  called  in  a  two-fold  sense;  the  master 
printer  calls  it  good  work  when  the  Compositors  and  pressmen 
have  done  their  duty ;  and  the  workmen  call  it  good  work,  if  it 
be  light,  easy  work,  and  they  have  a  good  price  for  it. 

Half  Press.     When  but  one  person  works  at  the  press. 

Hell.  The  receptacle  for  broken  or  battered  letters,  the  old 
metal  box — the  shoe. 

Horse.  The  stage  on  which  pressmen  set  the  heaps  of  paper 
on  their  banks. 

Keep  in.  Is  a  caution  either  given  to,  or  resolved  on,  by  the 
compositor,  where  there  may  be  doubt  of  driving  out  his  matter 
beyond  his  counting  off,  wherefore  he  sets  close,  to  keep  in. 

Keep  out.  A  caution  either  given  to,  or  resolved  on,  by  the 
compositor,  when  there  may  be  doubt  of  getting  in  his  matter 
too  fast,  wherefore  he  sets  wide,  to  drive  or  keep  out. 

Kern  of  a  Letter.     That  part  which  hangs  over  the  body. 

Letter  Hangs.     When  the  page  is  out  of  square. 

Low  Case.  When  the  compositor  has  composed  almost  all 
the  letters  out  of  his  case. 

Macule.  When  part  of  the  impression  appears  double. 

Matter.     The  series  of  the  discourse  of  the  compositor's  copy. 

Measure.     The  width  of  a  page. 

Monk.     When  the  ink  is  not  distributed,  or  lies  in  blotches. 

Naked  Form.     When  the  furniture  is  taken  from  the  pages. 

Off.  When  the  pressman  has  worked  off  the  designed  number. 


282  TYPOGRAPHY. 

Out.     When  a  compositor  has  set  all  his  copy. 

Out  of  Register.     When  the  pages  do  not  back  each  other. 

Pick.  When  any  dirt  gets  into  the  hollows  of  the  lettei, 
which  chokes  up  the  face  of  it,  and  occasions  a  spot. 

Pi.     When  a  page  is  broken,  and  the  letters  squabbled. 

Quarters.  Octavos  and  twelves  are  said  to  be  imposed  in 
quarters,  not  from  their  equal  divisions,  but  because  they  are 
imposed  and  locked  up  in  four  parts. 

Ratting.     Working  at  less  than  the  established  prices. 

Register  sheet.     Sheet  or  sheets  printed  to  make  register  with. 

Reiteration.     The  form  printed  on  the  second  side. 

Reglet.  Is  a  thin  sort  of  furniture,  of  an  equal  thickness  all 
its  length.  It  is  made  to  the  thickness  of  type. 

Rise.  A  form  is  said  to  rise,  when  in  rearing  it  off  the  cor- 
recting stone,  no  letter  or  furniture,  &c.  drop  out. 

Runs  on  sorts.     When  matter  uses  only  a  few  sorts  of  letter. 

Set  off.  When  sheets  that  are  newly  worked  off,  black  those 
that  come  in  contact  with  them. 

Shank.     The  square  metal  upon  which  a  letter  stands. 

Signature.  Any  letter  of  the  alphabet  or  figure  used  at  the 
bottom  of  the  first  page  of  a  sheet,  as  a  direction  for  the  binders 
to  place  the  sheets  in  a  volume. 

Slur.     When  the  impression  of  the  sheets  appear  smeared. 

Smouting.  When  either  compositors  or  pressmen  are  em- 
ployed for  a  short  time,  and  not  engaged  for  a  constancy. 

Sorts.  The  letters  that  lie  in  every  box  of  the  case,  are  sepa- 
rately called  sorts  in  printers'  and  founders'  language. 

Squabble.  A  page  or  form  is  squabbled  when  the  letter  or 
letters  are  twisted  about  out  of  their  square  position. 

Stem.     The  straight  flat  strokes  of  a  straight  letter. 

Superior  Letters.  Letters  of  a  small  face,  justified  by  the 
founder  in  the  mould  near  the  top  of  the  line. 

Turn  for  a  letter.  When  a  sort  runs  short,  a  letter  of  the 
same  thickness  is  substituted,  placing  it  bottom  upwards. 

White  line.     A  line  of  quadrats. 

White  page.     A  page  that  no  matter  comes  in. 

White  paper.  Although  the  first  form  be  printed  off,  yet  press- 
men call  that  heap  white  paper,  till  the  reiteration  be  printed. 


EXHIBITION 

OP  THE 

INDUSTRY 

OF  ALL  NATIONS, 

NEW-YORK 

1853. 


TWO    PREMIUMS   AWARDED   TO   L.  JOHNSON   &   CO.  AT    THE 
CRYSTAL   PALACE    EXHIBITION,  NEW  YORK. 


PHILADELPHIA 

mfo  Jiierafjjfe  Jirantorj, 


ESTABLISHED   IN   1796. 


rPHIS  establishment,  the  oldest  in  America,  has  kept  pace  with  all  the 
•*•  successive  steps  in  the  improvement  of  the  art  of  Type-founding; 
and  its  productions  at  the  present  day,  in  beauty  of  style,  accuracy  of 
standing,  and  durability  of  materials,  are  all  that  skill,  ingenuity,  and 
long  experience  have  been  able  to  effect.  Neither  pains  nor  expense  is 
withheld  to  maintain  its  well-founded  pre-eminence. 

The  Scotch-face  Type, 

Introduced  by  us  several  years  since,  has  coine  into  general  use,  and 
by  its  beauty  and  durability  has  won  wide-spread  reputation.  This  typo, 
of  all  the  intermediate  sizes  from  Diamond  to  Great  Primer,  we  keep 
on  hand  for  the  prompt  supply  of  orders. 


Light-face  Type, 


Of  a  most  inviting  appearance,  is  in  hand,  to  which  we  invite  the 
attention  of  printers  and  publishers.  Of  this  series,  the  Minion,  Brevier, 
Bourgeois,  Long  Primer,  Small  Pica.,  and  Pica  are  complete,  and  ready 
for  casting.  Specimen  sheets  will  be  furnished  on  personal  application, 
or  sent  by  mail. 

283 


284 
Our  assortment  of 

Fancy  and  Ornamental  Type 

Is,  perhaps,  unrivalled  for  beauty,  extent,  and  variety.  In  this  depart- 
ment, native  and  foreign  genius  and  inventive  skill  are  alike  laid  under 
contribution. 

The  Mufic  Type 

Cast  in  this  foundry  is  without  an  equal  in  America  or  a  superior  in 
the  world.  The  sizes  are  Excelsior  or  half-Nonpareil,  Diamond,  Agate, 
and  Nonpareil. 

Flowers  and  Borders, 

Plain  and  Coloured,  in  large  variety,  from  Agate  up  to  ten-line  Pica. 
CIRCULAR  AND  HOLLOW  QUADRATES,  for  the  easy  formation  of 
Circles,  Ellipses,  <fcc. 

Electrotype  Fac-Similes 

Of  Wood-Cuts,  from  more  than  two  thousand  subjects,  and  many  of 
them  very  fine,  promptly  furnished.  WOOD-CUTS  DESIGNED  AND 
ENGRAVED  to  order. 


Labour-Saving  Rules. 

We  call  special  attention  to  our  Labour-Saving  Rules,  which  are  cut 
with  extreme  accuracy  to  Pica  ems,  in  pieces  varying  from  1  to  50  ems 
in  length.  They  may  be  had  of  Single,  Double,  Parallel,  or  Dotted 
face.  The  Dotted  Rule  is  of  great  advantage  in  blanks,  <fec.,  while  the 
former  are  chiefly  designed  for  table  and  border-work. 

We  manufacture  BRASS  CIRCLES  AND  OVALS,  of  various  sizes 
and  face,  for  Label  and  Stamp  Borders ;  and  also  BRASS  or  TYPE- 
METAL  RULES,  BRACES,  &c. 

Prefses  and  Ink. 

We  are  agents  for  the  Presses  of  the  most  celebrated  makers  in  *ho 
United  States,  which  we  sell  at  manufacturers'  prices ;  as  well  as  for  ail 
varieties  and  colours  of  American  and  Foreign  Printing-ink,  Sizes, 
Bronzes,  Varnishes,  <fcc. 


28k 

Printing  Materials 

Of  all  descriptions  (most  of  which  are  of  our  own  manufacture)  are 
furnished  to  order. 

Complete  Outfits 

For  new  printing-offices,  on  the  largest  or  smallest  available  scale, 
comprising  every  requisite,  from  a  steam-power  press  to  a  bodkin. 

Estimates  given  in  detail  (with  the  cost)  of  all  the  materials  required 
for  a  Newspaper  Office. 

Our  Mitering  Machine 

Will  be  found  a  convenient  article  in  a  printing-office.  By  its  aid,  dia- 
grams can  be  made  of  any  angle,  with  Brass  Rule  or  Border. 

Stereotyping. 

We  have  great  facilities  for  stereotyping  (in  type-metal  or  copper) 
Books  in  the  various  Languages,  Music,  Wood-Cuts,  Labels,  Bookbinders' 
Stamps,  &c.  The  immense  number  of  volumes  bearing  our  imprint, 
which  circulate  throughout  the  entire  country,  will  attest  to  our  care  and 
ability  in  this  department.  Type  which  has  been  used  in  stereotyping 
for  sale  at  reduced  prices. 

Printers'  Guide-Books. 

We  publish  Adams's  Typographic,  or  Printer's  Instructor  —  a  valuable 
manual  for  the  instruction  of  apprentices  and  learners,  and  a  timely 
assistant  in  the  general  management  of  a  printing-office.  Price,  $1  ;  or, 
sent  by  mail,  postage  paid,  $1.15. 

We  furnish  Wilson's  admirable  Treatise  on  English  Punctuation,  Ac, 
on  the  same  terms. 

Specimen  Book. 

Our  unique  and  unequalled  Book  of  Specimens  will  be  sent  to  all 
printers  wishing  to  make  orders.  As  it  is  too  large  to  be  sent  by  mail, 
they  will  instruct  us  how  to  forward  it  to  them. 

Orders  attended  to  promptly,  and  inquiries  courteously  answered. 

L.  JOHNSON  &  Co. 


P.A.JORDAN.  PHILADELPHIA. 


286 
TABLE  OF  PROPORTIONS  OP  TYPE. 


am.  F 

earl.  A 

gate.   I 

Ivapa 

fflinio 

a.  Brev. 

Bourg. 

LPrfan. 

S.  Pi( 

a.    Pica. 

English. 

jr.  Prim. 

i 

i 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

i 

3 

4 
5 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

g 

1 
2 

3 

4 
5 

6 

7 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

1 
2 

o 
4 
5 
6 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

i 

2 

o 
O 

4 

1 

2 
3 
4 

1 

2 
3 

> 

'2 
8 
4 

5      "" 
6 
7 

1 
2 

4~" 
8 

6 

10 

11 

13 
14 

8 
9 

11 
1  2 

7 

8 
—  9- 
10 
]  I 

7 
_  8_ 
10 

6 

7 

9 

6 

-  7 

8 

5 
_  6_ 

7 

-  6~ 

4 

5 

9 
20 

7 
8 

15 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

1 
2 
3 
4 

9 
20 
1 

2 

17 
18 
19 
20 

H 
15 
10 

13 
14 
15 

12 

13 
14 

11 
12 

10 
11 

9 
10 

8 
9 

v/ 

; 

5 

8 
9 
30    '  — 

3 
4 

0 

•22 
23 

24_ 

17 

18 

16 

17 

15 

16 

13 
14 

12 
13 

11 

10 

8 

) 

1 
'2 
3 
4 

6 
7 
8 
9 
40 
1 

9 
80 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

23 

27 
28 
29 
80 
31 
.".2 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

27 

19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

~18~ 
19 
20 
21 

22 

24 

~1G 

17 
18 
19 
20 

<5~j 

15 

16 
17 

18 
19 

13~ 

14 
15 
10 
17 

12 
13 
14 
15 

10 
11 
12 

> 

3 
4 

9 
40 
1  

34 
85 

Jl 

26 

90 

20 

_l(j 

13 

(i 
7 
8 
1 
50 
1 

2 
3 
4 

s 

(5 

7 

40 
41 

42 

34 

30 
-31 

29 
30 

25 
26 

22 
23 
24 

21 

18 
19 

14 
15 

3 
4 

(i 
7 

8 

y 

GO  
1 

9 

50 
1 
2 

3 

4 
6 

43 
4t 
4o 

49"" 

35 
3(3 
37 

32 

34 
96 

3(5 
~37~ 

31 

32 

-35- 

27 
28 
29 
_80_ 

25 

2G 

28 

22 
23 
24 
—  25~ 

20 

16 
17 

i 

2 

7 

£0 

41 

36 

01 

29 

oo 

-1-  O 

3 
4 

5 

8 
0 

CO 

51 
52 
53 

42 
43 

39 

37 

38 

32 

33 

39 

97 

24 

19 

<i 

7 
8 
^9 

1 
2 
3 

54 
5,5 
56 

44 

45 
46 

41 
42 

39 
40 

34 
35 

81 

32 

28 

25 

20 

2 

5 

6 

57 
58 

47 

43 

41 

36 

33 

29 

26 

21 

3 

4 

7 
8 

59 
60 

49 

45 

43 

37 

84 

30 

^*7 

6 

7 

9  
70 
1 

61— 
62 
6° 

51 

47 

45 

39 

36 

~oi~ 

~28~ 

ff 

10 

1 

9 

80 

2 
3 

64 

52 
53 

48 

40 

40 

87 

°" 

29 

Zo 

\ 


l 


:  •> 


